Experience in the fight against separatism in Belgium

. Many countries in the modern world have faced with the problem of separatism, which can threaten not only the well-being of one individual state


Introduction
The problem of separatism is quite relevant in the modern world, since many countries of the world have faced with it. Belgium is one of these countries; however, it is worth understanding that the formation and activities of separatist groups are typical of the entire existence of this country. Thus, it is necessary to study Belgium's fight against separatism in the past and the methods used for this in order to apply this experience in other countries, including Kyrgyzstan.
The study of this topic is quite difficult due to the following reason: when studying the experience of combating separatism, it is necessary to consider a large number of interrelated aspects related to various areas of scientific knowledge. In particular, these scientific fields include: history, law, political science, economics and sociology. It is also necessary to understand the very specifics of the Belgian state, namely: there are two regions in it -Flanders and Wallonia, and the confrontation between them lasted throughout the history. Thus, one of the problems of this study lies in the fact that the issues of separatism should be considered not only in the national Belgian discourse, but also from the point of view of representatives of individual forces. Another problem is making the general conclusions, because it is necessary to be precise in statements and consider a certain issue as widely as possible.
detailed study of history, but also considering many aspects. In particular, it is necessary to pay attention to the peculiarities of the country's natural conditions, economic activities, influence and attitudes from foreign countries, etc.
The method of analysis is the main method used in this study. Its use has allowed conducting a detailed study of each source and selecting the relevant information relating to each of the aspects of the study. In addition, this method was used in the course of reviewing the history of Belgium. It was important not only to carry out a description of the past of this country, but also to identify the key aspects of activities in the past that contributed to the development of separatist sentiments. In addition, it should be understood that the methods of combating this phenomenon in different time periods gave different results. Therefore, it was important to analyze the achievements through the use of these methods and the conditions in society of that time. In addition, this method was necessary at the stage of analysis of statistical data.
The method of synthesis became the next method. Due to this method, in the course of the study, all the information obtained during the analysis was combined into single results. In particular, this method was having been used to consider what conditions of social activity of the Belgian state correspond to the previously determined general conditions for the development of separatism in any country. In addition, the method of synthesis allowed considering the current state of separatist sentiments in Belgium, since it was necessary to consider various aspects, in particular: the current economic situation, the influence of federalism, the political environment, statistical data and historical conditions. The method of abstraction was another method used in this study. With its help, the socio-political situation was studied, if it concerns the issues of opinions of certain separatist groups. Thus, the study of this topic requires the maximum objectivity and detachment from any political or social views in order to present accurate and reliable information.
In addition, the methods of concretization and generalization became important ones for the implementation of this study. The first of the mentioned methods has been used to focus on certain aspects and information that are significant in the context of study of the article's topic. In particular, in the course of considering the history of Belgium, it is important to pay attention to the conditions that contributed to the development and strengthening of separatist ideas through the use of method of concretization. Generalization was used to draw the main conclusions at each of the individual stages of the study. In particular, using this method, it was determined the consequences of the federalization process, as well as factors that most contribute to the development of separatism in modern Belgium.

Results
For a broader understanding of the concept of separatism, it is worth referring to the work of A. Khevtsuriani (2020), who has determined the main conditions for development of separatism in the modern world. These factors include: the ethnic heterogeneity of the country's population, the In particular, there are a number of radical parties in Flanders to date, which advocate secession from Belgium and have representation in parliaments; however, they do not constitute a majority, so it is impossible to speak of the dominance of separatist sentiments in this region (Van Erkel & Turkenburg, 2022).
A number of scientists from all over the world have been studying this topic. The study by A. Khevtsuriani & G. Chkhikvishvili (2020) became important for this article, in which the author outlined the main theoretical materials regarding the spread of separatism in the modern world, but this was done in a global context, and the Belgian case was almost not considered.
L. Essen (2012) considered in his book the history of Belgium from ancient times. The feature of this work lies in the fact that the author focuses on the formation of differences between the Flemings and the Walloons in a historical context. However, the topic of separatism almost was not considered in this book.
Researcher E. Witte (2020) also studied the topic of the history of Belgium, and he considered in his book the period after the country gained independence in 1830, focusing on the political events, in particular, in the context of fight against separatism. The scientific article by L. Hugle (2019) became another important study, in which the author considered the theme of federalization of Belgium and its impact on the development of social relations. However, the researcher has studied this topic within a narrow time frame, so this article does not cover the general situation. The scientist R. Mnookin (2009) studied in his work the unifying factors for Belgium, in the context of which he managed to describe the role of royal family in this; however, the researcher considered the role of foreign states somewhat inaccurately. In particular, the author claims that European countries have always stood for the integrity of Belgium.
A. Kruk (2015) in her study studied the topic of development of separatism in the future and she was able to outline the main ways for the future of Belgium. However, the researcher did not provide her own opinions regarding the most probable way out of the outlined ones.
The purpose of this study is to identify methods of combating separatism throughout the history of Belgium and to consider the prospects for using these methods to counter separatist sentiments at the present stage of development of this country. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to perform a number of the following tasks: to consider the theoretical aspects of the phenomenon of separatism; analyze the history of Belgium and determine what factors became the key ones to the split of society and the formation of separatist sentiments. It is necessary to determine the cases of social contradictions during the period of existence of independent Belgium and how they have been resolved; consider how the methods of combating separatism in the past influenced the current situation in Belgium. In addition, it is necessary to determine the current state of separatism in this country and the prospects for solving this problem.

Methodology
First of all, it should be noted that the study of methods of combating separatism in Belgium requires not only a uneven national development among these groups, historical factors, irrational policies towards the national minorities, as well as foreign influence, suggesting the incitement of separatist sentiments of one country among the population of another state.
Speaking about the development of separatism in Belgium, it is necessary foremost to consider the ancient and medieval periods of the history of mentioned country, since during these time periods, the processes that influenced the development of separatist sentiments in the modern world took place on the territory of Belgium. In the 3 rd century, the tribes of the Franks invaded the territory of Belgium (within the boundaries of modern Flanders), which were able to assimilate the local population. However, they failed to capture the entire territory of modern Belgium, since there is the Sonian Forest in the southern part of Belgium that is now located on the territory of Wallonia. The terrain of this forest is quite difficult for fast movement. Due to this, it was possible to preserve the Romanesque population in the territory of Wallonia. In the medieval times, the territory of modern Belgium was divided along a conditional border that ran along the Scheldt River, due to which these parts passed to different states. Subsequently, the northern part of the modern territory of this country was part of the Holy Roman Empire, and the southern part was an integral part of the French kingdom (Essen, 2012).
The signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 became an important milestone in the history of mankind and Belgium. Due to the Peace of Westphalia, the modern type of international relations was formed, and many states gained independence. In the context of Belgian history, this was not true, since Flanders was able to gain wide autonomy within the Netherlands, while Wallonia remained part of the French state (Essen, 2012).
During the period of the Great French Revolution, another important event took place, which went down in history as the Brabant Revolution. During this event, the Belgians united with the goal of gaining independence. It is important to note that the Belgians were not a separate nation, and this term was used to refer to certain provinces of France. Thus, their unification was not due to the ethnic kinship, but purely utilitarian aspects, since it was more profitable and easier for these provinces to fight for their independence together. As a result of their struggle, it was possible to create the Belgian United States. Although this country was able to exist for only two months, however, this event became important enough for the spread of independent sentiments among the inhabitants of the mentioned provinces (Witte, 2020).
Forty years after the Brabat Revolution, the Belgian Revolution began in 1830. The participants and activists of this revolution were dissatisfied with the policy of the Netherlands in this region and they wanted independence. As a result of these events, major European states gathered at the Belgian Congress in November 1830. Among these states, there were Great Britain, France, Prussia and russia. Upon completion of this meeting, it was decided to create the state of Belgium, which consisted of many regions, as well as to establish a monarchy headed by the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty. At the congress, many delegates from different countries doubted that Belgium would be able to exist for a long time, since heterogeneous regions inhabited by representatives of separate ethnic groups were united in this country (Witte, 2020).
As it can be seen, at the very beginning of Belgium existence, there were contradictions between ethnic groups, which subsequently began to intensify. From the very beginning, there were three communities in Belgium, in particular, Flanders (its inhabitants communicate in Dutch), Wallonia (its inhabitants communicate in French), and the German-speaking community in the east of the country. Despite the fact that Flemish (Flanders) community was the most numerous one among these communities, the Walloons played a leading role in society; thus, the frenchification of the entire Belgium started (Witte, 2020).
Along with the creation of the state of Belgium, the constitution of this country was adopted. It can be argued that this document is quite successful and carefully worked out. In particular, this document qualitatively regulated the restriction of royal power on the part of state institutions, due to which it was possible to combine the positive features of monarchical and republican systems. The success of this document lies in the fact that other countries in the region took it as a basis for writing their constitutions. In Belgium, the constitution has not undergone significant changes, except for individual amendments, which will be mentioned below. However, this document had significant flaws. In particular, only the French-speaking bourgeoisie had the right to vote in the parliamentary elections. In addition, the French language has become the leading language in all spheres of public life. For example, the court cases were resolved only in French in Belgium at that time, without interpreters. In addition, officers in the army used only French, which caused a number of inconveniences and misunderstandings (Witte, 2020). It should be noted that the Flemings (who communicated in Dutch) made up the majority of the population.
The economic development is the next important aspect to consider in the context of emerging conflicts between social groups in Belgium. In the first half of the XIX century, the first industrial revolution took place in the world, and Belgium became the second country affected by influence. However, not all territory of the country began to develop rapidly according to the new trends; because only in Wallonia, there were significant deposits of coal and iron ore, and due to the extraction of these natural resources, the region achieved significant economic success. At the same time, Flanders remained a purely agrarian region (Zhang et al., 2021).
Thus, the political and economic pressure from the French-speaking population of Wallonia became the reason of dissatisfaction of the Flemings, as a result of which the latter ones launched their own movement. It should be noted that the goal of rebels was not to separate Flanders from Belgium, but they fought for their own rights and equality; however, during this period, separatist ideas were formed (Witte, 2020).
In 1893, there was an intensification of the struggle for the right to vote in elections; in particular, many Flemings came out to express a note of protest, but the government sent an army to fight rebels in response to Research Articles their struggle. In turn, the workers of many factories went on strike, which was the first workers' strike in history that included political goals. In the same year, the Law on introduction of the universal suffrage was adopted, due to which the majority of Belgian population was able to participate in elections (Dawood, 2022). In addition, in 1898, it was adopted the Equality Act, which provided for equality between the Dutch and French languages. Although the Dutch language began to penetrate into many areas of public life, however, the absolute equality was not achieved. In particular, legal proceedings continued to be conducted in French (Witte, 2020).
Thus, it can be argued that the Belgian government tried to fight the Flemings by force; but later, it was decided to counter by means of agreements and concessions.
After the Second World War, an active economic recovery of Flanders began (since its territory is coastal); therefore, trading ports began to be created within its borders. In addition, the Flemings began to establish businesses specialized in the processing and producing of finished products from raw materials (Fabbricatti et al., 2020). Given these factors, Flanders quickly got ahead of Wallonia, which specialized in coal and iron mining. It is worth focusing on this aspect, because the economic growth of Flanders contributed to the strengthening of separatist sentiments.
It should be noted that economic growth of Flanders, combined with the demographic position of Belgium (out of 10 million people in Belgium, 5.5 were Flemish), contributed to the fact that delegates from Flanders began to occupy a majority in the country's parliament (Witte, 2020). Thus, at the end of the 1960s, the classical three-party system collapsed, due to which many Flemish parties began to gain more and more force in parliaments. At this time, a number of institutions were created, in particular the Flemish Nationalist Party, which aimed at the federalization of the country, and subsequently the radical Flemish Bloc, which sought to separate Flanders from Belgium (Akkerman et al., 2016).
The Belgian central government understood that it could not fight such a large Flemish group, so the preparations for transition from a unitary form of government to a federal one began in the 1970s. First, the existence of three communities in Belgium was determined at the legislative level: Flemish, Walloon and German-speaking. This division was made on the basis of ethnic and linguistic factors, due to which each of these languages got a status of state language. In addition, it was made a division into regions: Flanders, Wallonia, Brussels; but their boundaries were not clearly defined (Hossaine, 2019).
In the 1980s, it was possible to determine the boundaries of the regions of Flanders and Wallonia and consolidate their autonomy. The issues regarding the future status of Brussels remain important for a long time. On the one hand, this city is located on the territory of Flanders, but on the other hand, it is the capital of the entire state. As a result of the discussion, it was decided to give Brussels the status of a separate region and make it bilingual (Hooghe, 2019).
Thus, the first article of the Belgian Constitution is currently as follows: "Belgium is a federal state consisting of communities and regions" (The Belgian Constitution, 2021). Based on this, it is possible to argue that economic and cultural aspects underlie the federal division of the mentioned country.
In addition, when creating a federal system in the context of the formation of a united government, it has been considered that demographic situation (Flemings are the majority of the country's population) can influence the distribution of seats in the parliament and government. Thus, in the Article 67 of the Constitution, it is stated that the Belgian Senate consists of sixty deputies, as well as how many seats are given to the representatives from different regions. The 99th article of the Belgian Constitution describes the composition of the country's highest executive authority -the Council of Ministers, consisting of 15 members, one of which -the prime minister, and the remaining 14 seats are distributed equally among the representatives of Flanders and Wallonia (The Belgian Constitution, 2021).
As it can be seen, over a long period of Belgian history, the opposition to separatism and social uprisings (that arose from Flanders) took place not in the context of a struggle and tough confrontation, but due to finding compromise solutions.
At this stage, it is worth mentioning those conditions for the spread of separatism in the modern world, which have been outlined above, and determine which of them are characteristic of Belgium. As it can be seen from the table, most of the conditions for the spread of separatism are relevant for Belgium; however, it is the rational policy of the state (that has been described above) that makes it possible to restrain separatist sentiments among the population. It should also be noted that a unified Belgium is important not only for the federal government, but for the entire European Union, since the secession of Flanders and the formation of independent state will set a precedent for other separatist movements in Europe, in particular in Spain (Drieskens, 2019).
It is also worth considering what results have been obtained due to such compromise solutions. First, in fact, there are now two separate states in Belgium: Flanders and Wallonia, which have their own governments and parliaments, as well as all other characteristic state institutions, in particular the police (Wouters & Andrione-Moylan, 2021). Thus, these states have broad powers except the conduct of foreign policy, military administration, and other functions performed by the federal government.
The crisis of 2008 became an important event of our time, which led to the strengthening of separatist sentiments in Flanders. The problem lies in the Belgian tax system, according to which taxes fill the central budget, and then these funds are distributed to the regions. Thus, most of the federal budget is filled by taxpayers from the more numerous and developed Flanders; due to this, the rhetoric of the Flemish radicals takes on the appearance that Wallonia is unprofitable region (Wouters & Andrione-Moylan, 2021). Due to this, in the second decade of the 21st century, the popularity of the right-wing Flemish parties increased; in particular, the New Flemish Alliance party was able to get the 1 place in the Brussels Parliament in the 2009 elections, and the 3 place out of 89 ones in 2019. In the Flemish Parliament, this party managed to get 16 and 35 places in 2009 and 2019 respectively (European election results, 2019). As for the surveys of the Flemings, 22% of the Flemish population supported the idea of independence in 2011, and in 2019, this indicator increased to 40% (Fabbricatti et al., 2020). Certainly, these indicators do not make up the majority, but they are clear evidence of the spread of separatist ideas.
Given the information presented, the Belgian government should look for new compromise solutions, in particular in the context of tax issue, in order to counteract the spread of separatist sentiments.

Discussion
The issue of the development of Belgian separatism and the fight against it is relevant not only for this country, but also for many other states. Given this, this topic is quite popular and it has been the subject of consideration by many scientists.
R. Dendoy (2021), in the course of studying the current state of development of separatist sentiments in Belgium, drew attention to a rather important aspect. The author argues that the secularization of social life in Belgium (which is one of the global trends in the modern world) contributes to the strengthening of the ideological split between different groups of the population. In particular, this is clearly seen in the differences of opinion and the lack of consensus in the Belgian Parliament. It is worth agreeing with this opinion, since (as it was stated in the results of this study) from the very beginning of Belgium existence, there were few ideological factors that contributed to the unity of various groups in the state. Thus, with the weakening of the role of religious factor, new ideas should be found that unite all Belgians.
R. Mnookin (2009) is another researcher who has studied the factors that act as unifying elements of Belgian society. In the course of his research, the author was able to analyze the history of development of contradictions between the social groups and separatism in Belgium. Thus, the researcher was able to determine what factors were decisive ones for consolidation of all groups in the country throughout history. As a result, it has been determined that the Belgian monarchy is the main one among them, and accordingly, the central government, as well as the European countries. It is worth agreeing with this opinion, since the central government of Belgium has indeed acted in all periods of history to preserve the unity of the country. However, as for the second factor, the remark should be made, since the European countries advocated for the integrity of Belgium only at the present stage of history. In other periods, except the moment of state's formation, it cannot be said that the Europeans played an important role in maintaining the unity of Belgium.
Exploring the history of social contradictions in Belgium, M. Ginderachten (2012) considered the theme of national movements in Flanders and Wallonia. As a result of studying the history of these events, the author claims that separatist sentiments were strongly developed not only in Flanders, but also in Wallonia. However, this opinion is erroneous. First, it should be emphasized that the national movements, which is noted in the study by M. Ginderachten (2012), do not always pursue the aim of achieving the separatist goals. The national movements of Wallonia often arose in response to the rise of national movements in Flanders -this is another important aspect that should be understood in this context. The significant factor is that as a result of the 2019 survey, only 14% among all the Walloon citizens spoke in favor of the independence of Flanders (Fabbricatti et al., 2020).
Polish researcher E. Kuzelewska (2015) also studied the theme of countering separatism in Belgium. The following issue became the object of her research: the problem of language in the historical discourse of confrontation between the Flemings and the Walloons, as well as the solution of this problem by means of establishing a language boundary. The author argues that this method of counteracting public sentiment is not entirely appropriate, although it has managed to reduce tension between the communities. It is worth disagreeing with this thesis of E. Kuzelewska (2015), since the issue of creating the mentioned border has been made not only to solve the problem of linguistic separation. The decision to establish this boundary should be considered in a global context. In particular, as it was mentioned in the results of the study, this decision was made during the process of federalization of Belgium, so the decision to create a language border was appropriate, given the circumstances of that time.
Ukrainian researcher A. Kruk (2015), in the context of studying Belgian separatism, managed to make predictions about the future existence and development of Belgium. Thus, four possible scenarios for the development of events were determined: the disintegration of Belgium into parts, as a result of which some territories will become independent, while others will become a part of certain states; reforming the existing political system and creating a Belgian unifying movement; finding a compromise and turning Belgium from a federation into a confederation with a corresponding strengthening of the rights of individual regions; preservation of the modern Research Articles type of relations and freezing of the conflict. Based on the above-mentioned information expressed in the results, it can be argued that the 3 rd variant is the most likely option of development, since the Belgian authorities have always tried to reach a compromise solution in all confrontations. The first option is possible due to the inaction of central government, due to which the separatist sentiments will intensify and lead to the collapse of the state. The second option out of the listed ways is less likely, because (analyzing the history of Belgium and the experience of confronting separatist movements) this way was almost never used, and accordingly, it did not give results.
In the study by D. Wouters & A. Andrione-Moylan (2021), the researcher studied the topic of the state structure of Belgium. The author analyzed in his article the federal structure of mentioned country and the history of formation of this structure. During this work authors also touched on the topic of separatist tendencies at the present stage of Belgium's existence. He also argues that this country will inevitably collapse in the near future. Such an opinion is quite radical and erroneous. Firstly, based on the statistics presented in the results of this study, it is possible to talk about strengthening of the ideas of separatism and separation of certain regions of the Belgian state. However, such opinions do not prevail and do not cover the majority of population. In addition, author argues in his study that the choice of a compromise solution by the central government of the country (which resulted in federalization) will lead to the fact that the Flemings will only increase their demands over time, which will contribute to even greater split in society. However, it should be understood that there was no social unity from the very beginning of Belgium creation, and the use of force to combat social discontent proved to be ineffective. Thus, the compromise is the main effective way to counter separatism in Belgium.
J. Hoj (2009) is the author of a study in which it was examined the Belgian tax system and proposed the ways to develop it. As a result, the author argues that it is necessary to keep the tax system in its present form, namely: all funds go to the federal budget, and this money is distributed among the regions. However, this opinion is erroneous, because at the present stage of Belgium development, the tax issue is one of the main factors contributing to the spread of separatist sentiments in this country. In general, since the second half of the 20th century, when Flanders achieved rapid economic development, the economic aspect became an important issue in the context of the spread of separatist ideas. Thus, it is important to stimulate economic situation in Wallonia in order to get rid of controversy caused by this factor.
Generally speaking, it should be noted that separatist ideas in Belgium have developed throughout the history of existence of this country; so today, the Belgians have considerable experience in the context of countering this phenomenon. Achieving compromise between different social groups is the most important method of this opposition, but it is worth understanding that this method should be used carefully and rationally in order to curb the integrity of Belgium.

Conclusions
As a result of the study, it was determined the historical factors that contributed to the spread of separatism in Belgium. In particular, these are: the aggressive policy of the Germanic tribes and the division of lands of modern Belgium among various state entities during the Middle Ages and Modern History, due to which a national difference was formed between the population groups living in modern Belgium. From the very beginning of existence of independent Belgium, two mature ethnic groups were combined in this country, and there was no single Belgian nation. After gaining independence, the dominance and discrimination by Walloon of Flanders' inhabitants became an important factor in the formation of separatist ideas.
Countering separatism in Belgium throughout the history of independence was carried out by means of reaching a compromise between ethnic communities. In particular, this manifested in the following cases:  Granting the general right to vote in 1893.  Approval of equality of the Dutch and French languages in 1898.
 Federalization of the country in the second half of the 20 th century, which provided for the formation of economic and cultural regions and the granting of broad rights to these regions.
The principle of balancing the federal authorities is an important principle that Belgium uses in order to ensure stability in the state. It consists in ensuring a proportional number of deputies in the Senate, as well as an equal number of ministers in the highest executive authority.
The experience of combating separatism in Belgium shows that forceful methods are ineffective in the context of countering separatism, but it is necessary to implement a rational diplomatic policy.
In the last decade, separatist sentiments have increased among the inhabitants of Flanders, which is caused primarily by the economic factors. Given this, the Belgian government needs to find new compromise ways to solve it.
Compromise decisions made it possible to preserve Belgium as a single country, but they led to a number of negative consequences. In particular, the confrontation between ethnic groups is one of such consequences. Thus, it is necessary to investigate the negative results of Belgium's fight against separatism in the past, and suggest the ways to solve them. In addition, the economic gap between the regions and tax system is an urgent problem; in this context, it is necessary to explore possible directions for resolving these issues in order to counteract separatist sentiments.