China-US Relations in the 1940s - Early 2020s: Establishment and Key Challenges

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Introduction
China-US relations refer to diplomatic, economic, and cultural ties between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the United States of America. In recent years, relations between the two countries have become increasingly strained due to several factors: trade tensions, human rights issues, and territorial disputes in the South China Sea. Overall, relations between the US and China are considered one of the most important bilateral relations in the world due to the size and influence of both countries. Thus, the purpose of the research was to identify the specific features of the development of relevant ties between the states and to outline in more detail their problems and impact on the world's geopolitical situation.
The Ukrainian author V. Porokhnia (2021) examined issues related to trade relations between the United States of America and the People's Republic of China and the possibility of a military conflict between the two superpowers. In particular, the authors pointed to this possibility in the absence of a high-quality and effective diplomatic dialogue between governments and the continuing high level of confrontation for leadership within the global economy.
A. Beteringhe et al. (2020), explored the impact of the COVID-19 coronavirus infection on the development of international cooperation, and the development of China-US relations. In particular, the author noted that the United States is using the approach of politicising the pandemic to accuse the Chinese side of its spread and to further impose sanctions on the People's Republic of China. Therewith, the author indicates that it is the joint struggle of both the US and Chinese sides, as two developed countries, against the spread and spread of the infection that can strengthen diplomatic relations between the countries and prevent the development of confrontation between the relevant subjects of international law.
The Ukrainian authors M. Razinkova and M. Trudova (2018) devoted their attention to the foreign policy of the United States of America in the Asia-Pacific region, and the issue of trade and investment between the countries. In particular, the authors point to the need for an investment treaty between China and the United States that would balance economic tensions and improve economic trade relations. According to scholars, during 2008-2016, the share of the Chinese side in the United States' exports was constantly growing and amounted to about 8%, and in imports to about 18%, which indicates a certain dependence of one country on the other in the economic sphere.
I. Gabro and T. Pikalova (2020) explored the relationship between the development of China-US relations and the migration of Chinese citizens to the United States. Among the main reasons, the authors identify the following: higher income levels in the United States, a high probability of obtaining a permanent residence permit from the US government due to the political situation in China, active cooperation between the two countries has led most Chinese citizens to find employment outside their country of citizenship, which has led to the establishment of the Chinese diaspora, and exchange programmes in the field of education, etc.
Scholar O. Shevchuk (2022) has elucidated the "Taiwan issue" in the context of the russian-Ukrainian war and relations between China and the United States. He noted that the russian federation's full-scale invasion of Ukraine was a catalyst for frozen conflicts, including over Taiwan.
The analysis of the above-mentioned works demonstrates the high level of relevance of the study of this subject for various aspects of China-US relations, which mainly consist of the probability of escalation of the conflict between the states.
The purpose of this research is to explore the historical development of relations between China and the United States and the globalisation phenomena that have influenced its course.

Materials and Methods
The research was written using several methods of scientific knowledge, the main of which was the historical method. Thus, it was used to determine the chronology of the development and establishment of China-US relations in the 1940s-2020s, along with their features and the impact of geopolitical changes, such as military conflicts, humanitarian and economic crises, changes of government, top leadership, etc.
The comparison method allowed examining the differences in trade relations between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America, in particular, those related to trade, imports, and exports between the two countries, and migration of both the American and Chinese populations in the respective countries. The factors that can provoke an increased outflow of Chinese citizens to the United States were explored, including such criteria as quality of life, economic and political stability, educational component, cultural characteristics, government position, etc.
In addition, the study examined the positions of the US and Chinese sides on the russian-Ukrainian war and the impact of this situation on the issue of disputed territories in the world, including Taiwan. The study examines the probability of aggravation in China-US relations and further military confrontation between the superpowers. The impact of the deterioration or improvement of diplomatic ties on the world situation is determined. Using the comparative and statistical methods of scientific knowledge, the author illustrates the main differences between the export and import activities of the PRC and the USA. The source of statistical data in the research was the US Census Bureau and the World Bank (US Census Bureau, 2019; China trade balance…, 2019).
The systematic method allowed analysing the main stages of the development of diplomatic relations in their entirety and exploring their current state and prospects for further improvement or deterioration in terms of economic, social, and political aspects.
In addition, using the method of legal hermeneutics helped to clarify and disclose the legal framework under which interstate relations between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America were established. The method of analysis was used to identify adverse phenomena in China-US relations, and based on their study, ways to solve problems and ease tensions between the two countries were proposed. The method of synthesis proved to be quite essential in the research, as it allowed the combining and integrating of all important aspects of China-US relations to identify further prospects for the development of this type of interstate relations. In conjunction with the method of synthesis, the author used such a method of scientific cognition as modelling, which was used to establish a future vision of the development of economic, social, and political ties between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America considering the current geopolitical situation: pandemic, military conflicts, humanitarian and economic crisis, etc.
By using such a method of scientific cognition as induction, a general conclusion is made regarding the subject of the study based on the individual elements identified and the specifics of the development of diplomatic relations between the United States of America and the People's Republic of China.

Results
Diplomatic relations between states refer to the official and institutional ties between two or more sovereign states. These relations are established and maintained through diplomatic channels and are designed to promote cooperation and communication between nations. The concept of diplomatic relations is a fundamental aspect of international relations and plays a crucial role in promoting peace and stability between nations. It is based on the principles of sovereignty and equality, meaning that each nation has the right to determine its policies and make its own decisions, while recognising the sovereignty of other nations (Hu et al., 2022).
The specific features of diplomatic relations between the two countries include the following: 1. Representation: Diplomatic relations are established through the appointment of ambassadors or other types of diplomatic representatives by one nation to another. These representatives serve as official intermediaries between the two countries and are responsible for communicating their country's policies and positions to the host country.
2. Protocol and etiquette: Diplomatic relations are governed by a set of protocols and etiquette that define Research Articles the appropriate behaviour of diplomats and help maintain good relations between nations.
3. Communication: Diplomatic relations facilitate communication between nations and provide a mechanism for resolving disputes and promoting cooperation. It includes regular meetings between diplomats and official delegations, and the exchange of diplomatic notes and other official communications, among others (Hu et al., 2022).
Diplomatic relations between states are established when two sovereign nations agree to appoint diplomatic representatives to each other's countries. This agreement can be formalised by a bilateral treaty, mutual exchange of diplomatic notes, or other similar diplomatic documents. Once this agreement is concluded, the two countries can begin to establish formal diplomatic relations through the exchange of ambassadors or other types of diplomatic representatives (Tien et al., 2021).
In the case of the People's Republic of China and the United States, diplomatic relations between the two countries in the 1940s were defined by several important events and trends, including the Chinese Civil War, the Japanese occupation of most of China, and the growing concern of American policymakers about the spread of communism in Asia. Despite these challenges, the 1940s marked an important period in the development of China-US relations, as the two countries began to establish official diplomatic relations (Tien et al., 2021).
The Chinese Civil War, which lasted from 1927, was a major factor in the development of China-US relations in the 1940s. The conflict between the nationalist government and the communist rebels was brutal, and the United States initially tried to remain neutral in the conflict, but as Japanese military aggression in the region escalated, the United States began to provide increased assistance to the nationalist government. In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China, and by 1940, most of the country was under Japanese control. The Chinese government was forced to retreat inland, and the nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek found itself in a difficult position. The United States responded by increasing aid to the nationalist government and imposing economic sanctions on Japan in an attempt to limit its aggression in the region (Jayathilaka, 2022).
In 1946, the United States and China signed the China-U.S. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation, which established official diplomatic relations between the two countries. This treaty provided the foundation for future cooperation and collaboration and paved the way for the United States to provide increasing assistance and support to the nationalist government in its fight against Japan (Treaty of Friendship..., 1946).
The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 was a turning point in China-US relations. The conflict between North Korea (backed by the Soviet Union and China) and South Korea (backed by the United States and its allies) had far-reaching consequences for the region and the world. The United States was concerned about the spread of communism in Asia and considered the Korean War a clear threat to its interests in the region. As a result, the United States allocated significant military and economic resources to resolve the conflict and sought to coordinate its efforts with other states in the region, including China. Despite ongoing diplomatic and economic relations between the United States and China, tensions between the two countries continued to grow throughout the 1950s. One of the key sources of tension was the US containment policy, which was designed to limit the spread of communism in the world (Boylan et al., 2021). American officials considered China to be the main threat to their interests in the region and sought to limit the country's influence. In response, China saw the United States as the main threat to its interests and tried to counter American influence. As a result, tensions between the two nations have grown, as each has sought to advance its interests and protect its sovereignty (Yamaka et al., 2021).
The 1960s and 1970s were a period of intense change and challenge for China-US relations. These years were marked by major events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Vietnam War, and the Cultural Revolution in China (Fang et al., 2022).
The 1980s and 2000s were characterised by a period of transition and changes in China-US relations. These two decades were marked by events such as the end of the Cold War, the rise of China as a major global power, and the growing importance of economic ties between the United States and China (Fang et al., 2022). Despite these positive developments, the period was marked by significant challenges, including disputes over human rights, trade and economic issues, and military and security concerns. Economic ties were one of the key areas of cooperation between the US and China during this period. Both countries have sought to expand trade and investment relations and cooperate to address common economic challenges (Sansa, 2020).
Another major source of tension between the US and China during this period was trade and economic issues. The United States and China have had a complex and frequently difficult relationship on these issues, with disputes arising over trade balances, intellectual property rights, and other economic issues. The US has sought to address these issues through diplomatic and economic channels and to identify ways to expand economic ties between the two countries while addressing trade imbalances and other economic concerns (Sansa, 2020).
Finally, military and security issues remained a significant source of tension between the United States and China throughout the 1980s and 2000s. The United States was concerned about China's growing military capabilities, including its nuclear weapons programme, and sought to limit China's military influence in Asia. Despite these challenges, there were significant efforts to improve China-US relations from the 2000s to the 2010s. The two countries have made a series of high-level diplomatic visits, including those by Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama to China and President Hu Jintao to the United States (Fouskas et al., 2021).
The period of 2015-2020 marked a significant evolution in China-US relations. The relationship between the two nations continued to be characterised by a mix of cooperation and competition, with both nations facing several domestic and international challenges that affected their relations. Technology and intellectual property issues played an important role in China-US relations during this period. The US accused China of state-sponsored hacking and intellectual property theft and imposed sanctions on Chinese companies and individuals; the US sought to limit China's access to advanced technologies, including important military equipment (Fouskas et al., 2021).
However, the US and China continued to cooperate in the fight against climate change. In 2015, the two countries signed the Paris Agreement (2015), pledging to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and take other measures to combat climate change. Countries have worked together on several climate initiatives, including efforts to promote clean energy and reduce emissions from the energy sector.
Another major challenge to China-US relations has been the trade war that began in 2018 and included the imposition of duties and other trade barriers by each country on the other (Yamaka et al., 2021). The trade war between China and the United States was mainly driven by concerns about the trade imbalance between the two countries and China's trade practices, including allegations of intellectual property theft and forced technology transfers. The United States has expressed concerns about China's industrial policies, including the "Made in China 2025" plan, which is designed to establish China as a global leader in advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, robotics, and biotechnology (Boylan et al., 2021). In response to these concerns, the United States began imposing duties on Chinese goods in 2018, starting with duties on steel and aluminium imports. China retaliated with its tariffs on US goods, and the trade war escalated gradually as each country imposed higher and higher tariffs on the other. The trade war has had a significant impact on the global economy, as many companies and consumers have faced higher prices for goods and services as a result of tariffs. In 2020, a preliminary agreement was reached to de-escalate the trade war, but tensions remained high, and a full resolution to the trade conflict is currently uncertain (Yamaka et al., 2021).
In addition, it is advisable to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on China-US diplomatic relations. At the beginning of the pandemic, the United States accused China of concealing information about the virus, which resulted in the wide spread of the disease. The US side has accused China of being responsible for the outbreak and criticised its handling of the pandemic, a tension fuelled by political and media narratives in the US as the Trump administration has taken a confrontational approach to China. In addition, the pandemic has deteriorated economic relations between China and the United States, as supply chain disruption, trade restrictions, and a slowdown in global economic activity have adversely affected trade and investment between the two countries. On the other hand, the pandemic has provided an opportunity for increased cooperation between the two countries, as in 2020 the two countries signed a joint statement on the response to COVID-19, committing to cooperate in healthcare, research, and vaccine development; this cooperation was seen as a positive step towards improving relations between the two nations (Sansa, 2020).
According to the World Bank, in 2019, trade between China and the United States was characterised by a large trade deficit in favour of China (Fig. 1). The United States exports a variety of products to China, including machinery: this category includes a wide range of goods such as computers, telecommunications equipment, engines, turbines, and pumps. Electronic equipment: televisions, mobile phones, etc. Vehicles: The United States exports cars, trucks, and other types of vehicles to China. Mineral fuels: crude oil, petrol, and diesel; plastic bags, plastic sheets, and plastic films. The United States exports a variety of agricultural products to China, including soybeans, corn, and other grains, and livestock and poultry products (Li et al., 2022).
On the other hand, China exports to the United States such goods as electronics: smartphones, laptops, and other electronic devices; a wide range of machinery products, including computers, telecommunications equipment, engines, turbines, and pumps; furniture; textiles; shoes; toys; etc . It is essential to add the issue of migration to the issue of China-US relations in the early 2020s (Fig. 2)

Research Articles
Statistically considered, the Chinese are one of the largest ethnic groups living in the United States; there are several reasons for this migration: 1. One of the main reasons for Chinese immigration to the United States is to seek better economic opportunities.
2. Another reason for Chinese immigration to the United States is the desire to obtain a higher-quality education.
3. Some Chinese citizens have migrated to the United States to escape political or religious persecution in their home country. The United States is known for its democratic values and freedoms, including freedom of speech and religion, which are attractive to those seeking to escape repressive regimes or religious restrictions. 4. Considering the evolution of Sino-US relations, the US is a hub for many industries, including technology, finance, and entertainment, offering several opportunities for Chinese nationals with special skills or experience (Thurston, 2021).
In addition, it is important to assess the impact of russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on diplomatic ties between the United States and the People's Republic of China. The United States and China have taken opposing positions on the war, notably in that the United States openly supports Ukraine and calls for an end to russian aggression, while China has taken a more neutral stance, advocating a peaceful resolution of the conflict (Fouskas et al., 2021). The United States and its allies imposed economic sanctions on russia in response to its annexation of Crimea and the outbreak of hostilities in Ukraine, thus affecting russia's ability to trade with other countries, including China, and indirectly affecting China-US economic relations (Li et al., 2022). The war against Ukraine has led to increased military cooperation between the United States and its NATO allies, including intensified military exercises and deployments in Europe, which has greatly concerned the Chinese government about the deployment and increase of the US military presence on the European continent (Li et al., 2022).
Thus, China-US relations are currently tense and marked by competition and disagreements on several issues, including trade, technology, human rights, and geopolitical influence. The COVID-19 pandemic has only added to the challenges as both countries have struggled to control the spread of the virus and blamed each other for its origins.
From the standpoint of the russian-Ukrainian war, it did not have a clear impact on China-US relations but contributed to the overall destabilisation of the international system.
As for the future of China-US relations, there are several potential scenarios: 1. Escalation of tensions: If current trends continue, it is possible that tensions between the two countries could escalate. Competition for influence and power may result in a more confrontational approach, and the risk of economic and military conflict may increase.
2. An agreement reached through negotiations. Thus, with a quality dialogue, the two countries can reach agreements on key issues such as trade and technology.
3. Uneasy coexistence: The third scenario is that China-US relations could remain tense for years to come, but remain stable, with both sides pursuing their interests but avoiding explicit conflict. This scenario is probably going to involve a high level of mistrust and weak cooperation on key issues. 4. Cooperation in addressing global challenges: Finally, it is possible that the two countries could cooperate in addressing global challenges such as climate change, pandemics, and terrorism. This scenario is most consistent with the current state of China-US relations and is the most probable.

Discussion
For a deeper analysis of the relevant subject, it is necessary to analyse the works of other authors on a related subject. Thus, for example, the book by American author E. Thurston (2021) on Sino-American relations examines the historical component of their development during the 1940s and until the late 1990s. The book provides a balanced analysis of the relationship between China and the United States, highlighting both the successes and failures of the two countries in their attempts to cooperate, and emphasises the significant contribution to the development of these relations by such personalities as Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, and Bill Clinton. In addition, the study presents a vision of the future of China-US relations, considering some crisis factors. For example, the Notably, the results of E. Thurston's (2021) study are similar to those of this study, but the author analyses in detail the development of China-US relations between 1940 and 1990; this work contains a summary of the development of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 1940-2020.
The work of the British author E. Kirchner (2021) analyses the security policy of the European Union in the Asian region, including China, and the influence of the United States on this policy. In addition, the author emphasises the changing geopolitical landscape in the region due to the US-China rivalry and tensions that could potentially affect the EU's security interests in Asia. Thus, the author concludes that uncertainty in the development of Sino-US relations provokes the inability of other countries and organisations to expand their spheres of influence in the Asian region and improve diplomatic ties with China.
Notably, the author's findings do not coincide with the results of this paper, but they are an important contribution to the scientific doctrine of China-US relations.
A team of Romanian authors, M. Murea et al. (2022) analysed the China-US trade wars of 2018-2021. The authors argue that the conflict was driven by a mixture of political, economic, and strategic interests on both sides, with both the US and China seeking to protect their national industries and maintain their economic power. Scholars note that countries have used different approaches to resolve the conflict, for example, the United States used the policy of increasing tariffs and customs duties to push China to negotiate and strengthened diplomatic ties with other countries to gain support for the American position. In turn, China has focused on strengthening its economic power and technological capabilities.
A similar study was conducted by the Japanese author K. Itakura (2020), which concerns the impact of a trade war on the economies of the warring parties and the global economy in general. For example, K. Itakura (2020) notes that the confrontation between the US and China has resulted in a significant reduction in bilateral trade, with both countries imposing duties on a wide range of goods. In addition, the author suggests that the trade war had social and cultural consequences, including the rise of nationalism and xenophobia in both countries.
The results of the authors only partially coincide with the results of this study, in particular, in terms of the study of trade wars, their causes, and their course.
Chinese author Y. Yao (2021), in his study, analyses the new US approach to relations with China, which the author calls the "new Cold War". The author argues that the US government considers China a strategic competitor and is taking a more aggressive stance towards China, especially in the areas of technology, trade, and security. The study discusses the reasons for the change in US policy towards China, including concerns about China's growing economic and military power, human rights abuses, cyber security threats, and territorial disputes in the South China Sea. The study examines the impact of the US policy shift on overall China-US relations, and its implications for other countries in the region, particularly those in Southeast Asia, suggesting that the US strategy could lead to a new era of global competition and a deterioration in China-US relations in the struggle for spheres of influence.
Author W. Lixin (2021) examines the factors that have defined bilateral relations over the past few decades, including economic interdependence, political differences, and ideological competition. In addition, the author highlights the current state of China-US relations, which he describes as being in a state of "competition, cooperation, and confrontation", especially in the areas of trade, technology, and the South China Sea region.
Notably, the authors' findings partially coincide with the results of this study but are important for exploring and understanding the specifics of China-US relations and their further development against the backdrop of several crises and the ongoing struggle for global recognition and leadership in the economic, trade, and other spheres. All of these can be factors that exacerbate tense China-US relations and provoke a devaluation of diplomatic achievements in recent years.
The American author S. Chan (2020) examines the concept of the "Thucydides' trap", which suggests that when a rising power (such as China) threatens to displace a dominant power (such as the United States), the two countries are likely to get into a military conflict. The researcher argues that Thucydides' trap is not a deterministic theory but rather a cautionary one that seeks to emphasise the dangers of miscalculations and misunderstandings between rising and dominant forces. While there have been cases in history where a trap has resulted in war, there have been cases where it has been avoided through diplomatic means. In addition, the research logic underlying Thucydides' trap theory is not necessarily correct, since it is based on theoretical components rather than empirical data. Moreover, the concept does not consider other factors that may contribute to or offset the risk of an escalation of the confrontation: domestic political considerations, economic interests, ideological differences, etc. The author concludes that while the "Thucydides trap" is useful for understanding the risks and challenges of China-US relations, it should not be considered an inevitable outcome. Instead, the two countries should work to resolve their differences through dialogue and cooperation, recognising the importance of avoiding escalation and miscalculation.
In this study, the "Thucydides effect" was not explored, thus, the results do not coincide with those of S. Chan (2020), but are quite interesting for consideration and analysis. In particular, in terms of the possibility of an escalation of the conflict between China and the United States. Similar considerations are present in this study regarding the future of China-US relations, as one of the development models suggests that a military confrontation between the two superpowers is possible.
The American author K. Boutin (2019) explored the economic security dimension of China-US relations, in particular in the context of the USA's concern about the growth of China's economic power and its impact on the economic interests of the US side. The author argues that while economic interdependence between the two countries has increased significantly, it has not led to greater cooperation as some had predicted. К. Boutin (2019) traces the evolution of US-China economic relations from the early 1980s, when the United States sought to promote China's economic development as a means of encouraging political liberalisation, to the present day, when the United States sees China as a strategic rival and seeks to counter its economic rise. In addition, the study presents various issues that have contributed to the deterioration of economic relations, including intellectual property theft, trade imbalances, and China's industrial policies that have allowed it to gain a competitive advantage in certain sectors. In conclusion, researcher emphasises the importance of addressing the main structural factors that have caused economic tensions between the two countries, such as China's restrictions on market access and lack of transparency in economic decision-making. He argues that progress can only be made if both countries are willing to make significant concessions and engage in substantive dialogue.
The author's findings only partially coincide with the results of this research but are essential for understanding the essence of China-US relations and their future form, considering the significant tension between the countries due to trade issues, problems related to the systematic violation of human rights and freedoms in China, and theft of intellectual property and personal data.
International relations scholar P. Gries (2022) has explored how national identity affects the interaction between China and the United States. The author argues that China and the United States are defined by different historical experiences and cultural traditions that generate different national identities. The author notes that the differences in the mentality of the countries contribute to conflicts and misunderstandings between China and the United States. Thus, P. Gries (2022) suggests that the way to improve China-US relations is to recognise and respect the differences in national identity between the two countries. He argues that the United States should be more sensitive to China's historical experience and cultural traditions, while China should be more open to the values the United States promotes, such as democracy and human rights.
Although the author's results do not coincide with the results of this study, they are interesting for analysis. In particular, this study presents the possibility of improving US-China relations through a high-quality and effective dialogue between representatives of the two countries, but it is essential to consider the opinions and achievements of P. Gries (2022) and note that another important aspect of improving US-China interaction is mutual respect for cultural and mental differences between the peoples.

Conclusions
The research work allowed identifying important aspects related to the establishment of China-US relations, including historical development, economic cooperation, conflicts, and contradictions that arose during 1940-2020. Thus, it was established that the beginning of cooperation between the two countries was connected with the United States assistance to the nationalist government of China, which opposed the communist regime.
The further development of China-US relations was determined by the Korean and Vietnam wars, security concerns, and the growth of China's military power, which emerged as a rival to the United States, but diplomatic ties were further improved to stabilise the situation between the two countries.
The pandemic caused by the COVID-19 coronavirus infection was a turning point in the history of China-US diplomatic relations. In particular, the problem was the accusation by the United States of America of the People's Republic of China of concealing information about the virus and its massive spread. Along with the problem of the pandemic and China's responsibility for this phenomenon, the issue of human and civil rights on the Chinese side, theft of personal data and intellectual property has arisen.
The so-called "trade wars" and mutual economic dependence between the two countries are important aspects of the development of China-US relations.
In addition, the study presented some statistics on the problem of mass migration of Chinese citizens to the United States, in particular, about 2.6 million Chinese citizens migrated to the United States in 2021. In addition, the main reasons for migration are listed: the quality of education, human rights situation, economic stability, etc.
In addition, the main reasons for migration are listed: the quality of education, human rights situation, economic stability, etc. Considering the Ukrainian-russian war, the development of China's military power, etc., it is possible that the conflict could escalate, an agreement between the states, increased cooperation on global issues, etc.
For further research on related subjects, it is proposed to clarify the following issues: the impact of the russian-Ukrainian war on the image of the United States and China in the world; ways to resolve the "trade war" between the United States and China; models of peaceful cooperation between China and the United States to avoid escalation of the conflict in the region.