ADULT LEARNING AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT IN BUKOVINA (1861-1940): A CASE STUDY OF THE UKRAINIAN-SPEAKING COMMUNITY*

Given the many ways in which adult education, as an important factor of socio-cultural progress and personal growth, has raised a great deal of interest, many studies have given rise to various theoretical approaches to adult education and learning, that still shape research on adult learning at present. Importantly, the social character of literacy is revealed in a variety of ways, since nowadays literacy, in its multi-manifestations, has become a vital set of competencies and practices, interwoven in the fabric of present-day societies. Numerous studies have attempted to explain the prerequisites and preconditions for the emergence of adult learning and education and trace the path of its establishment and further development. The present paper sheds new light on the history of the Bukovinian Ukrainians’ (the Ruthenian population) adult learning and education. There remains a neglected area in the field of adult learning education of other nationalities of Bukovina, so there is still a need for its further investigation. It is worth mentioning that experts have always seen Bukovina as a polyethnic and multiconfessional land, but our focus will revolve around the Ukrainian-speaking adult population’s education, its establishment and development. Traditionally, historical research techniques and approaches can improve the selection of the most appropriate methods to compare data and test theories to forecast the possibilities of their development. Therefore, the holistic understanding of adult education is pivotal to achieving our research goals. Given the results, we found out which factors contributed to the continuation of learning that prevailed in the public education policy and the public sphere of Bukovina from 1861 to 1940. Consequently, within the above-mentioned chronological framework, we have classified the process of adult learning and education development in Bukovina into 5 distinct periods. Such findings pointed to significant gains from the participation in adult education classes in a set of well-established and widely spread * The authors thankfully acknowledge anonymous reviewers for taking their time and devotion to make critical comments and suggestions. 64 Oliynyk, Tymchuk, Fedirchyk, Marusynets reading clubs that have become the first adult learning and education centres. Their activities were aimed at facilitating people’s perception of reality, in order to actively and consciously evaluate the ongoing processes in the society, varying from civic engagement and social cohesion to stimulation of their civil stance and the sentiment of national unity. Analyses of literacy practices and the social contexts in which they were embedded emphasized the enhanced adult learners’ participation and their final successful outcomes. This paper stressed the importance of the Folkuniversitet of Chernivtsi, which was widely recognized beyond the boundaries of both the city and the region. Altogether, the findings of this study reveal a number of important implications for future research.

reading clubs that have become the first adult learning and education centres. Their activities were aimed at facilitating people's perception of reality, in order to actively and consciously evaluate the ongoing processes in the society, varying from civic engagement and social cohesion to stimulation of their civil stance and the sentiment of national unity. Analyses of literacy practices and the social contexts in which they were embedded emphasized the enhanced adult learners' participation and their final successful outcomes. This paper stressed the importance of the Folkuniversitet of Chernivtsi, which was widely recognized beyond the boundaries of both the city and the region. Altogether, the findings of this study reveal a number of important implications for future research.
Keywords: Adult learning, adult education development, re-training, literacy courses, Reading clubs, lectures, instructions, people's university.

INTRODUCTION
The noteworthy contemporary transition from Adult Education to Lifelong Learning has long been a question of great interest in a wide range of fields. An evaluation of the available history of lifelong learning or adult learning and education shows that a comprehensive history and in-depth analysis of the proficiency of educating adults focused on teachers and their interaction with their students going back to the earliest records has yet to be undertaken by modern scholars in the field of adult education. The prominent thinkers of humanity and great teachers from ancient times Confucius, Solon, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, Thomas More, Jan Amos Comenius, Jean Antoine Condorcet, Robert Owen and many others built the foundations of the adult education movement over the past several decades and approached the anthology of a certain methodology of practicing their discipline. While the adult education movement is relatively recent, some historians and theorists have committed themselves to the task of recording its history as it has been practiced over the past several decades, going back as far as a few centuries.
Recently, there has been renewed interest in adult education and different approaches to embracing the role it has been playing from ancient times to modernity. Given the many ways in which adult education, as an important factor of socio-cultural progress and personal growth, has raised a great deal of interest, many studies have given rise to various theoretical approaches to adult education and learning, that still shape research on adult learning at present. Importantly, the social character of literacy is revealed in a variety of ways, since nowadays literacy, in its multi-manifestations, has become a vital set of competencies and practices, interwoven in the fabric of present-day societies.

HISTORIOGRAPHY
A considerable amount of literature has been published on the establishment and development of adult learning and education. Furthermore, a worldwide research in this area encounters difficulties which are unique to the field of study, and also shares many of the problems experienced by research into other areas of adult learning. Over time, an extensive literature of the Ukrainian academic school has developed on embracing the importance of adult learning and education in the world. The authors attempted to distinctly conceptualize the shift from education to learning, aiming to emulate the global experience for the active and productive Ukrainian citizen. Recently, Ukrainian scientists presented a significant analysis and discussion on the history of the development of adult education in different countries of the world. The historical trends in the development of adult education in Europe were highlighted in a study conducted by Timothy Desiatov 1 ; Elena Ohiyenko 2 conducted a large-scale research on the development of adult education in Scandinavian countries, Svetlana Kovalenko 3 respectively in UK, Roman Teslya 4 -in France, Natalia Bidyuk 5 -in the USA, Ilona Mariutz 6 -in Romania; Olga Pastushok 7 -in Poland; and Valentina Davydova 8 , respectively, focused her study on the history of non-formal education in Sweden.
Moreover Hryhorii Piddubnyi 20 and others explored a wider range of subjects in historiography that concern Bukovina, that crystallize a straightforward historical narrative path/direction from a mosaic of works on Bukovina's complicated past, as well as reviews that analyze the stages of the Ukrainian schooling system established in Bukovina  Hungarian authority, and 1918-1940 -when it was under Romanian rule.

METHODS AND SOURCES
To judge the validity of our study we would rather provide a clear and precise description of the pedagogical, empirical, comparative-historical and theoretical methods, as follows: specific philosophical, psychological, educational, scientific and methodical literature analysis and study of research issues on adult education; analysis of methodical documentation; general theoretical methods of analysis; synthesis; chronological (the study of certain stages of adult education development in the region during the period under study); historical (analysis of preconditions and tendencies of the development of the Ukrainian adult education in Bukovina); and content analysis of periodicals and archival data.
Together, these studies provide important insights into the problem and rely on the documents and materials of the funds of The State Archive of Chernivtsi Oblast, Department of Rare and Valuable Books of Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University; Department of Funds of Chernivtsi Regional Museum of Local Lore; Exposition materials of Chernivtsi Yuriy Fedkovych Literary Memorial Museum, laws and statistical data collections; socio-political and pedagogical press; historical and pedagogical researches.

THE ESTABLISHMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE UKRAINIANS' ADULT LEARNING AND EDUCATION IN BUKOVINA
Traditionally, historical research techniques and approaches can improve the knowledge of the most appropriate methods to compare data and test theories to forecast the possibilities of their development. Consequently, in our case study, periodization is critical in comprehending the historical process, which facilitates the identification of its internal patterns. It also highlights the role and particular importance of the history of Bukovinian Ukrainians' adult education in examining the various stages of its formation.
We wanted to find out which factors contributed to the continuation of learning, prevailing in public education policy and in the public sphere in Bukovina between 1861 and 1940. Research findings showed that investment in adult literacy programs was an effective method for creating tangible, sustainable and long-term changes. Consequently, within the above-mentioned chronological framework, we have divided the process of adult learning and education development in Bukovina into 5 distinct periods. The first period (1861-1894) is determined by favourable prerequisites for adult education formation, significantly influenced by political factors, and the socio-economic and cultural transformations in Bukovina. The second period (1894-1905) is characterized by educational and economic advancement; establishment of adult rudimentary education within the compulsory school. The third period (1905)(1906)(1907)(1908)(1909)(1910)(1911)(1912)(1913)(1914) witnessed intensive quantitative enrichment and qualitative improvement of organizational forms of adult education, modification of their content, development of secondary, vocational and higher education of adults. The fourth period (1914)(1915)(1916)(1917)(1918)(1919)(1920)(1921)(1922)(1923)(1924)(1925)(1926)(1927)(1928) encompasses the development of adult education slowed down because of the First World War and the 'under siege' regime. The fifth period (1928)(1929)(1930)(1931)(1932)(1933)(1934)(1935)(1936)(1937)(1938)(1939)(1940) testifies to an upsurge of interest in methodological innovation and innovative methodologies in adult learning and education. We consider it to be particularly evident to define and highlight all the periods.

THE FIRST PERIOD (1861-1894)
From the historical perspective, it is worth mentioning that the development of adult learning and education in Bukovina predetermined the social processes that took place in the Austrian Empire in the second half of the nineteenth century. It should be articulated that of all Ukrainian-inhabited territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bukovina was the last to experience intensive social and economic changes, but large-scale industrial production, crucial shifts in firm organization; the co-evolution of social and physical technology caused a contradiction between the needs of society and the actual willingness of the population to live in new conditions. From the viewpoint of the economic transformations, it was concluded that the major problem was the non-educated, unqualified workers amongst the Ukrainians (Ruthenians) in Bukovina, and, what is more important, their poor education (according to the 1880 Census, only 9.2% of the Bukovinian Ukrainians could read and write; 1.1% could read, and 89.7% were illiterate) 28 .
The Austro-Hungarian Empire authorities, having approved the laws on the state (in 1868-1869) and the regional school (1873), established a structural system of education, which facilitated and promoted the rapid development of a society. The Ukrainian schooling was intensively developed (according to the terminology of that time, Ukrainian narodna (people's) school is a compulsory public school for 6-14-year-olds (whilst in Bukovina, according to the law on the regional school (1873) it enrolled from 7 up to 13-year-olds. Various types of schools for adult education were also on the agenda, by setting up such path-breaking establishments, where illiterate people could get elementary education, their children were raised and taught morally and spiritually, to cultivate their minds and provide them with the necessary knowledge and skills for further life and study 29 . Noteworthy, on the one hand, the secondary school could not absolutely solve the problems of adult illiteracy; such objective and subjective barriers to the efficient functioning of educational institutions (supply-side concerns such as poor funding, lack of teaching material and methodology, shortage of teaching staff, low teaching methodology; illiterate parents or family poverty, etc.), became increasingly more permeable, influenced by effective ways of implementing extracurricular education. At the same time, as local authority budgets were constantly squeezed, the adult education sector had become more impoverished. Consequently, the massive promotion of adult education was meant to help them gain or upgrade their qualifications to obtain, or sustain, employment in any kind of job, to adapt to new social and political and economic conditions in the best possible way.
Another major milestone in the development of adult education in the province during a certain period was the activity of Ukrainian public organizations and societies, facilitated and promoted by the Austrian constitutional freedoms, law and legal system in general. After the adoption of the Austrian law 'On Social Law' in 1867, which guaranteed every citizen the freedom to form societies and participate freely in their activities, several Ukrainian associations were founded in Bukovina: 'Ruska (Ruthen) Besida', 'Ruska Rada', 'People's House', 'Union', 'Myronosytsi' (women who brought anointments to Christ's tomb), 'Ruska School', attributed to the learning undertaken in Bukovina, taking into account other factors such as prior educational level and the social background that could also have influenced them. The same positive tendency was evident, including various economic and educational organizations, which were founded to involve peasants in vigorous social life that led to positive outcomes, while moderated in some cases by problematic consequences and making them economically independent and politically conscious.
Such findings, thus, point to significant gains from participation in adult education classes in a number of established and widely spread reading clubs that have become the first canters for adult learning and education. Their activities were aimed at facilitating people's perception of reality and helping everyone become the true masters of their lives, in order to actively and consciously evaluate ongoing processes in the society, varying from civic engagement and social cohesion to stimulation of the civil stance, and the sense of national unity 30 . Moreover, the latter appears to be most strongly boosted by leisure classes, the traditional matrix of adult education provision; by reading books, periodicals, journals; and participation in entertainment events (choirs, recitation, games and agile games, humorous performances, folk performances, festivals (holidays), etc.). Traditionally, reading was associated with the synergy of education and economic and social affairs (almost all rural reading clubs were governed by societies, set up in many communities to train adults in agriculture, industry and crafts as well as Raiffeisen credit unions or savings and loan associations, stores).

THE SECOND PERIOD (1894-1905)
A growing body of literature review illustrates that the German rigor and the relatively complied legislation within the Empire were meant to modernize the economy and the society as a whole, including public education. Piloting a new initiative of re-education became an important ground-breaking solution to the development of the concept of adult learning and the rationales in the region. In 1894 a regional law on re-education was adopted in Bukovina, which stipulated the opening of a two-year retraining course as mandatory at village schools 31 . According to the law, students of a public school (13-14-year-olds) were obliged to attend re-training courses until they turned 16. Meanwhile, another Order (September 25, 1894) of the Provincial School Council of Bukovina allowed young people to attend the courses up to their 20ies 32 , and it supports our assumption that the re-training courses were the core constructs of the system of adult education. It has been investigated that local teachers held such courses from November till April each academic year. Accordingly, men and women attended the schools separately at different time, coordinated by the local council. (Crownland) School Council supervised and financed the courses. Finally, the students were given the certificate of completion, which recorded their academic achievements, behaviour and diligence.
Based on the analysis of the primary sources, it has been established that a significant number of shortcomings and inconsistencies accompanied the functioning of the re-training courses during the first ten years. The content of the retraining course was eventually tailored to meet the characteristics and needs of illiterate adults. Teachers, from their own experience, recommended the introduction of optional continuing education courses for Ukrainian public-school dropouts. They reported that in order to strengthen the system of adult education, it was essential to introduce the so-called 'town continuing education course' that could go beyond a 6-year elementary school curriculum,; and respectively, for uneducated adults -a course of elementary literacy to meet the complex demands of encouraging literacy learning in community sites. However, officially at the regional level, re-training courses were not reorganized, since Bukovinian teachers, applied differentiated approaches to certain target groups, tailoring curricula to the demands and level of the adult students. Significantly, the Bukovinian teachers developed their own synopses and programs correlated with the continuing education course.
Notably, in 1894 the statute of the society 'Ruska Besida' was amended by some regulations that facilitated the extension of its educational and financially viable activities, in particular, its ultimate goal was 'to enlighten and educate, while securing the wellbeing of the Ruthenians 33 . Such activities of 'Ruska Besida' and other proactive societies resulted in a considerable increase of Reading clubs. Statistically speaking, in 1894 there were 46, and in 1897 -50, and in 1902, respectively, 64 reading clubs 34 . Interestingly, according to the amended statute, the society 'Ruska Besida' was empowered to launch new reading clubs, that stipulated arranging up-to-that-date methods and approaches to adult learning and education developing -provide courses for illiterates (analphabets); lectures; synopses; vechornytsi (traditional gatherings with music, songs, jokes and rituals); amateur theatrical performances; establishing agricultural and industrial units; as well as giving people the opportunity to evolve financially (retail stores and loan shops). 33  For the most part, the main objective of the courses, provided for illiterate peasants and lower middle class (petty bourgeoisie), was to cultivate and develop their elementary skills of reading, writing and counting. Correspondingly, such courses served as guiding principles and practices to meet the needs of adult learners. The component skills of reading and writing, and the practices were considered effective tools for encouraging and developing 'people's literacy awareness'. In reality, the courses became the initial and crucial step of designing adult elementary literacy education. It was highly valued by analphabets, who were taught reading and writing in their native language and the basics of arithmetic. In addition, the courses taught the Law of God, Ukrainian, German (Romanian), women's handicraft, natural (physical) sciences (geography, geometry, physics, natural history), literature (scientific survey), drawing, music and singing 35 .
An increasing number of studies have determined that the courses fighting illiteracy were socially-grounded and state-run. In other words, their establishment was initiated by community societies, whilst school authorities regulated and controlled the pedagogical process. Although literacy courses were initiated as a form of adult elementary education, practically they functioned as intensive (up to 3 months) courses, aimed at peasants' acquiring elementary literacy (basic knowledge and practical skills) and their becoming nationally conscious. Classes were held at a school, in reading clubs during three months -from January till March, sometimes March-May: on Sundays and holidays for three-four hours, on weekdays -three times a week for two hours. Thus, the dynamics of literacy acquisition stipulated widespread mass literacy, where young people and adults were examined by school managers and the local inspectors and, eventually, given the relevant certificates after completion of the course. It should be mentioned that the courses were funded and financed by the Regional School Fund and public associations.

THE THIRD PERIOD (1905-1914)
The single most significant factor influencing the spread of literacy and expansion of learning and education of adult Bukovinians influenced the recognition of their social and civil stance. Most ethnographic studies of literacy published over the past centuries highlight how the practice of literacy affects the whole human life, especially their sense of self-and social identity. Along with the existing societies, the new ones sprang up: a professional association of school teachers called 'Mutual Aid to Galician and Bukovinian Teachers' was founded in 1905, the 'Independent Organization of Ukrainian Schooling in Bukovina' in 1908, 'The Women's Hromada' in 1906, and the 'Society of Orthodox Ukrainian Women' appeared in 1908. Not surprisingly, adult literacy rates have increased.
Overall, the historical record (the then-named periodical 'Bukovina') suggests that on the eve of the First World War in Bukovina the emergence, consolidation and expansion of various Ukrainian associations and societies (political, cultural, educational, economic and professional etc.) became the motor for the rising of adult literacy. The studies of literacy transitions using multivariate models conclude that educational expansion has been one of the most important determinants of historical rises in literacy and it can be seen in Table 1. Mass literacy campaigns sought to produce broad-based improvements in the literacy skills of adults for whom literacy had previously been inaccessible or unattainable. Furthermore, many societies contributed to the emergence of qualitatively new forms of adult education. One of the most significant events in the pre-war period in Bukovina was the establishing of such institutions of higher education for adults as modelling European folk high schools and Volkshochschule. In 1905, by mutual efforts of the 'Ruska School', 'Ruska Besida' and the 'Students' Union', the Founded in 1905, the Folkuniversitet Committee organized lectures in various science domains on a regular basis in different Bukovina settlements. These programs constituted one part of broader provincial policies to address multiple objectives, including training skilled lecturers, supplying them with the necessary educational materials. By their very nature, the small-scale programs reached out to targeted segments of the adult population and therefore played a crucial role in reducing illiteracy, combined with the expansion of formal schooling and other public policies, that broadened access to literacy on a more voluntary and selfmotivated basis. According to the Bukovinian scholars-educators Teofil Bryndzan, Ivan Herasymovych, Ilariy Karbulickiy, Constantin Malytsky, Yerotey Pigulyak, Omelyan Popovich and Stepan Smal-Stotsky, the criteria for the lecturers and educators' professionalism and skilfulness were determined as follows: meeting the needs and requirements of illiterate adults; sticking to the principles of systematicity; continuity and consistency; accessible learning content; scientificness; objectivity and reliability of information; as well as taking into account existing difficulties and obstacles, harmful effects on the quality of adult education and access to schooling (social, psychological and pedagogical, socio-psychological, psychophysiological background). In practice, lecturers' interpersonal skills and competencies were largely determined by a complex interplay between their own motivations and the available teaching capacities 38 .
Analyses of literacy practices and the social contexts in which they were embedded have emphasized the increased participation of learners and their final successful outcomes. Markedly, in 1910 in reading clubs of the village of Davydeny-Zrub, many literacy course participants received a school-like education, with its accompanying benefits, and the importance of such schooling was their enrolment at the course -primarily, 34 peasants were enrolled and later, in two weeks, an overall number of 78 adults were studying there. The adult students were encouraged by captivating teaching methods and lectures of the local teacher Valery Chesnikivskyi. Among the participants there were even 60-year-olds 39 It is worth mentioning that the regional periodicals traditionally highlighted different important events such as arranging lectures, and further giving reviews and feedbacks. Thus This section has highlighted the importance of the Chernivtsi Folkuniversitet, which was widely recognized beyond the boundaries of both the city and the region. Several studies suggest that the idea of introducing courses for adult learning and education was implemented in the villages of Bukovina: in 1910, adult literacy courses were organized in Hlyboka and Davydeny-Zrub, and respectively, in 1912 in Kitsman. The origins of literacy can be traced back to 1912, when adult literacy courses in Chernivtsi were reported to have achieved high records and served as a model to be emulated by other People's Universities of Galicia, as evidenced by the materials set by the Educational and Institutional Commission 'Prosvita' (Enlightenment) dated 1912 48 .
An important feature of the third period of adult education development in the province was also the establishing of a chain of vocational education courses aimed at providing the adults with financial and economic knowledge. The most proactive and vigorous organization of professional courses were the Ukrainian women's societies 'Society of Ruthenian Women', 'Women's Hromada', Society of Orthodox Ukrainian Women'. The pace of change in literacy in Bukovina between the late nineteenth century and before the beginning of the First World War was generally extended to launching specific sewing classes, courses for 'sophisticated artworks' (cotton and satin embroidery); handicraft of folk motifs; winter house holding courses for farmers, courses for accountants and stenographers 49 .
Evidence of the strong association between craftsmanship and manufacturing and commercial activities was suggested by several sources. In the pre-war period, 'Women's Hromada' developed and administered societies of decorative, applied and folk art (embroidery, weaving, production of national clothes and pysankas (painted eggs)) and domestic women's handicrafts and production (harvesting and handling vegetables: pickled cabbage and cucumbers, dried vegetables and spring crops and baking for sale) etc. 50 . The national costumes manufactured by Vyzhnytsia and Vashkivtsi embroiderers were in great demand in the region. As it was reported, women were the first to embroider at home, and later in 1909 a studio-embroidery was established. In January 1910, the organizing committee of the 'Women's Hromada' in Chernivtsi carried out a huge work to collect embroideries and further promoted their sales. It should be noted that as a result of Women's Hromada's endeavours in April 1910, artistic products were exhibited in the premises of the People's House, which later were showcased in Vienna and The Hague. Thus, these observations demonstrate that the third period (1905)(1906)(1907)(1908)(1909)(1910)(1911)(1912)(1913)(1914) was favourable for the development of adult education in Bukovina. The quick pace of economic, political and cultural development of the region, and the rise of the Ukrainians' national self-awareness led to the gradual expansion of adult access to learning opportunities, within the context of various development plans, cultural policies, showing the dominance of education, that contributed to the adults' personal enrichment and growth and positively influenced the level of their cultural intelligence.

THE FOURTH PERIOD (1914-1928)
All things considered, literacy-supporting policies or projects during the fourth period (1914)(1915)(1916)(1917)(1918)(1919)(1920)(1921)(1922)(1923)(1924)(1925)(1926)(1927)(1928) were introduced on a much smaller scale. Moreover, the speed of literacy transitions slowed the development of adult education considerably due to a societal factor such as the onset of World War I in 1914. Bukovina became the ground of fierce battles and, simultaneously, of a diplomatic struggle over the neighbouring states of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Romania, whose borders converged on the territory of Bukovina. Undoubtedly, the war crucially affected all walks of life in the region, including culture and education. Most schools were destroyed, while armies requisitioned schools for hospitals, or even sometimes for stables. 52 . Since the warfare slowed the progress of acquired literacy and contributed to illiteracy, the situation at the time posed the threat of persistent illiteracy. Significantly, in 1916 the Bukovinian Provincial School Board made great efforts to prevent the recurrence of illiteracy, by adopting several orders on the organization of courses for illiterates in existing schools 53 . Not surprisingly, under such conditions, the people's access to educational services was severely diminished.
As expected, the war aftermaths had such a negative impact on adult learning and education development that it could barely catch up the level of 1914 55 . The siege methods included strict control and strengthening of police supervision over residents, restriction of citizens' movement and restriction on holding meetings, etc. Of all the societies and associations that used to function before the WWI, only women's societies proceeded with their activities. Throughout 1919-1921 in Bukovina, the 'Society of Orthodox Ukrainian Women' was actively engaged in resolving the problems (assistance to refugees, displaced persons, orphans and widows) caused by the WWI consequences and the aftermath 56 .
Notably, in 1918 a new 'Ukrainian Public Library' association was founded. Its primary goal was to establish in Chernivtsi the first public library and a reading club. However, due to several shifts of political regimes, the rise of its activities occurred only after 1920 57. In this respect, of particular interest were the reminiscences of Vasyl Rusnak, who used to be the long-standing Head of the society: "between 1922 and 1938 our strategy for supporting the Ukrainian public library was working quite well... At the beginning a small library collection housed ... several fictional books, soon this library was recognized... as a major institution whose stock enumerated more than 10,000 books of a diverse content, many of scientific literature and few foreign literature books' 58 . In addition, the library attracted lots of high school students, university students, professors and regional intellectuals.
In the light of the discontinuity and diversity of the political, economic and cultural situation in Chernivtsi, it should be mentioned that after the WWI, due to the national awakening, other Ukrainian societies were restored -'The Petty Bourgeoisie Reading Club', 'The Ukrainian People's House', 'Ruska Besida', 'The of the substance and scope of adult learning, expressing the complementary facets of the learning experience that could be applied at 1930's in Bukovina, since the crownland adult learning and education was undergoing drastic innovative transformations. Starting from 1932, a new format of educational work was actively spread in Bukovina -in the format of the so-called 'living newspaper'. The peculiar characteristics of a 'living newspaper' as it appeared, illustrated some of the techniques employed in the forms of traditional lectures, synopses, literary and theatrical performances, etc. Innovation consisted in their integration as a holistic organization of adult education. An outstanding public figure, Daryna Makohon (her literary pseudonym was Iryna Vilde), described the methodology of issuing and promoting a 'living newspaper'. Iryna Vilde disclosed in detail the functioning of the venture: an editorial board was elected '…to meet the certain circle's taste and cultural needs', being predominantly focused on the content of the next issue of the newspaper. The typical sections of the 'living newspaper' were carrying a popular science content, developing historical, literature and literary criticism issues, as well as providing informative reference, methodological and advisory survey' 64.
Reaffirming the core of the right to basic education and skills for all, with adult literacy as the cornerstone of commitment, adult learning and education in Bukovina was further developed, since during that period the authorities and various societies promoted starting up economic (household budgeting) courses for peasants and petty bourgeoisie to get them ready and educate/instruct them for further cooperative activities. It should be emphasized that it was the 'Women's Hromada' that initiated cooperative courses in budgeting and money education in 1931, and practically implemented their ambitions in 1932. Significantly, 34 men and 3 women, mostly peasants, of different background and age -comprising 17-43-yearolds were enrolled in the course. The courses lasted for 6 weeks with a 28-hour academic week. The course program comprised the following subjects: 'The Essence nature and social functions of literacy that have changed dramatically in less than two centuries. We now have a landscape of adult education and lifelong learning where mixed principles, policies and practices co-exist, with the evolution of open and flexible systems of provision capable of adapting to social and economic change. Repositioning adult education within lifelong learning therefore requires a shared philosophy of the purposes and benefits of adult learning. However, still missing in the adult education literature are histories that include a review of the education of adults as it was practiced in Bukovina throughout 1861-1940. Consequently, within the above-mentioned chronological framework, we have divided the process of adult learning and education development in Bukovina into 5 distinct periods. The results of this investigation show that the first period (1861-1894) produced favourable prerequisites for adult education formation, and was significantly influenced by political factors, socio-economic and cultural transformations in Bukovina. The analysis of the second period (1894-1905) reveals considerable educational and economic advancement, and the establishment of adult rudimentary education within the compulsory school. The study contributes to our understanding of the third period (1905-1914) as a phase of intensive quantitative enrichment and qualitative improvement of organizational forms of adult education, modification of their content, development of secondary, vocational and higher education of adults. This research has provided a deeper insight into the fourth period (1914)(1915)(1916)(1917)(1918)(1919)(1920)(1921)(1922)(1923)(1924)(1925)(1926)(1927)(1928) as an obstacle to the development of adult education, caused by the First World War and the regime of 'siege'. Finally, this study has found that the fifth period (1928)(1929)(1930)(1931)(1932)(1933)(1934)(1935)(1936)(1937)(1938)(1939)(1940) proves an upsurge of interest in methodological innovation and innovative methodologies in adult learning and education.
One of the more significant findings that emerge from this study is that adult learning and education are located at the heart of a necessary paradigm shift towards lifelong learning for all as a coherent and meaningful framework for education and training provision and practice. On the basis of the carried out retrospective analysis, we can state that during the investigated period a peculiar organizational structure of the Ukrainian adult education functioned in Bukovina; adult education and learning were represented by institutions of formal adult education (courses of re-training, continuing education) and non-formal modes (reading, non-literate courses, lectures, professional courses, Folkuniversitet). The development of organizational forms of adult education and their integration into the system is considered an important proof of the evolutionary processes of the education of adults of Bukovina during the period under study, denoting the enrichment of its quantitative and qualitative indicators. Altogether, the findings of this study have a number of important implications for future practice.