Proceedings of the XVIII EURALEX International Congress Lexicography in Global Contexts 17-21 July 2018

Reciprocity has been the focus in much theoretical research in recent years. It has been primarily studied as a grammatical property, which is not of high relevance for the description of the lexical stock of a language. At the same time, however, it has been widely accepted that languages substantially differ with respect to the inventory of words allowing for reciprocity, and that the applicability of reciprocity is rarely derivable from the semantic and/or syntactic properties of these words. The integration of the information on reciprocity into lexicons would thus be highly beneficial for both human users (esp. for foreign speakers) and for natural language processing tasks. In this paper, we demonstrate how the reciprocity of Czech verbs can be represented in a lexicon in a comprehensive and systematic way. Czech represents a language where reciprocity is a highly productive phenomenon. We show which semantic and syntactic properties are relevant for the description of reciprocal verbs, and based on this a user (be it human or computer) can acquire their reciprocal constructions.


Introduction
In the last century, linguistic research had a strong tendency to disassociate meaning from form.
Particularly in the tradition of transformational generative grammar, many linguistic studies adopted the unchallenged view that the form exhibited by a word is independent from its meaning.Under this view, a lexicon serves as an inventory of separate words bearing some meanings, while a grammar provides grammatically correct combinations of these words.However, the development of corpus linguistics has revealed that semantically similar words exhibit similar grammatical patterns, indicating that there are many interdependencies between the grammatical properties of words and their meaning (Sinclair 1991;Levin 1993).In this paper, we demonstrate how a primarily grammatical property of words, namely reciprocity, can contribute to a better description of the vocabulary of a language.We focus on Czech reciprocal verbs and their representation in a valency lexicon of Czech verbs, VALLEX (Lopatková et al. 2016). 1eciprocity is generally understood as a complex of forms and patterns of mutuality and exchange.In line with König and Kokutani (1996) and Haspelmath (2007), among others, we distinguish between symmetry as a semantic property of a word and reciprocity as a grammatical or lexical coding of the given property.Let us repeat a notorious description of symmetric predicates as predicates that denote binary (or n-ary, where n ≥ 2) relations R among members of a set A of semantic participants with the following semantic property: (i) " x, y Î A (x ≠ y → R(x, y)) (König & Kokutani 2006); as a consequence, for two particular a, b Î A it holds (R(a,b) ↔ R(b,a)).
Reciprocal constructions are then grammatical means for the expression of symmetrical relations for an n-ary predicate and for set of participants A with a cardinality of at least 2 (|A| ≥ 2).For example, in (1a) the predicate hádat se 'quarrel' denoting relation R among semantic participants from the set A = {Petr, Pavel} is a symmetric predicate, as the participants from the set A (Petr 'Peter' and Pavel 'Paul') are distinct and related to each other by the relation R, as required by (i).A typical reciprocal construction is then instantiated in (1a).Let us stress, however, that reciprocals are not associated with a uniform meaning -on the contrary, their meaning varies, as discussed in detail by Dalrymple et al. (1998).The above attempt to formally describe symmetry and reciprocity is relevant for the so-called strong reciprocity when each member of the set A is related by the relation R to every other member (Langendoen 1978).Formula (i) holds for most reciprocal structures in which two participants are involved, as in (1b) and (2).Reciprocity can, however, be associated with different semantic facets; as these facets are not linguistically structured and they typically remain vague, we leave them aside here.2 Reciprocity represents the linguistic means for encoding symmetry.It can be characterized as an operation resulting in the fact that two (sometimes more)3 valency complementations of a predicate stand in symmetry.In Czech,verbs (1a,b) and (2), nouns (3), adjectives (4) or even some adverbs (5) can be used as reciprocal predicates.In reciprocal constructions, one valency complementation of these predicates is typically occupied by the whole set A, while the second is either reduced on the surface (1b), (3), and (5), or filled by coreferential expressions (2) and (4).As a result, dual thematic roles (in an unreciprocal structure mapped onto two complementations separately) are then associated with both valency complementations involved in symmetry, see Figure 1, displaying double mapping of thematic roles Agent and Patient onto valency complementations ACT and PAT with the verb políbit 'to kiss'.
Peter and Mary REFL were faithful 'Peter and Mary were faithful to each other.' (5) Domy jsou orientovány rovnoběžně.'Houses are oriented in parallel.'Reciprocity did not attract much attention in either theoretical or computational linguistics until the turn of the century.Since then, reciprocity has been gradually gaining interest among theoretical linguists, the focus being on both syntactic and semantic analyses and cross-linguistic typological studies (König & Kokutani 2006;Heim et al. 1991;Dalrymple et al. 1998;Siloni 2001;Frajzyngier & Curl 2000;Nedjalkov 2007;König & Gast 2008;Evans et al. 2011).As reciprocity is expressed mostly by regular grammatical means, it is predominantly treated as a grammatical phenomenon.However, as Siloni (2002) and Reinhart and Siloni (2005) argue, reciprocity is of high relevance to both grammar and lexicon in many languages.Czech is one of the languages where reciprocity is reflected in both lexicon and grammar, thus representing a prototypical phenomenon at the lexical-grammar interface.As such, in this paper we attempt to provide a comprehensive and systematic representation of reciprocal verbs, making use of both parts of the language description.As reciprocity is lexically conditioned and its applicability to verbs cross-linguistically varies, the theoretical results achieved here can be further made use of in practical lexicography in building both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries.In other words, reciprocity as a lexically determined characteristic of verbs can greatly assist in an adequate description of their meaning, and thus also in better word-sense disambiguation.
The lexicographic description of reciprocity can be beneficial for exploring which strategies verbs adopt for encoding mutuality.
The rest of this paper is structured as follows.First, two basic types of Czech reciprocal verbs are distinguished according to whether they encode symmetry in their lexical meaning or not.Further, their representation in the valency lexicon of Czech verbs, VALLEX, is proposed (Section 2).Second, a theoretically adequate and economical representation of their reciprocal constructions is provided for the given valency lexicon (Section 3).

Czech Reciprocal Verbs in VALLEX
In Czech reciprocity is expressed by the verbs that either denote a mutual situation, or can potentially denote such a situation (Panevová & Mikulová 2007).The former group of verbs -the so-called inherent or lexical reciprocal verbs, as symmetry is an inherent part of their lexical meaning -is semantically restricted (see Section 2.1).The latter group of verbs is semantically very broad; their semantic interpretation is primarily asymmetrical (e.g., podezírat 'to suspect', klamat 'to deceive'), but they denote events which can be on certain conditions -primarily lexical -conceived as mutual.This group is referred to as syntactic reciprocal verbs (see Section 2.2).

Inherent Reciprocal Verbs in Czech
Inherent reciprocal verbs are those that bear the semantic feature of symmetry in their lexical meaning (Evans, 2008), as discussed for Czech in Panevová and Mikulová (2007).Their various types are described below, with emphasis on different functions of the reflexive clitics se and si, which represent (besides their other functions) one of main grammatical ways of encoding reciprocity in Czech.
The reflexive clitics in Czech, as in other European languages, are highly polysemous, marking some word formation processes, reflexivity, middle voice, and reciprocity, see e.g.(Medová 2009).In Czech reciprocal constructions, the reflexive clitics represent either a part of verb lemmas, or the inflected forms of the reflexive pronoun; the latter can be substituted -depending on word order and topic-focus articulation -by their long forms sebe and sobě, respectively.While the reflexive clitics of the first type are associated with verb lemmas (and not with any valency position of a verb), the clitics of the latter type fill one of their valency positions, just like nouns and other pronouns, as we show below.
In reciprocal constructions of inherent reciprocal verbs, participants can be reciprocalized, i.e., expressed in a single syntactic position.Inherent reciprocal verbs predominantly exhibit subject-oriented reciprocity, where the reciprocalized participants of an event denoted by a verb are expressed in the subject position (6a), (7a), (8).Object-oriented reciprocity, where reciprocalized participants occupy the direct object position, is rather limited in its number (9a  9b), where the participants are expressed in separate syntactic positions provided by their valency complementation.Due to the symmetry as an inherent part of the meaning of these verbs, the participants expressed in separate syntactic positions can be switched without any change in meaning. 4  (A) Irreflexive inherent reciprocal verbs.Some inherent reciprocal verbs are characterized by irreflexive lemmas, like diskutovat 'to discuss' in (7) or porovnávat 'to compare' in (9).In reciprocal constructions with these verbs -regardless of whether the participants involved in symmetry are reciprocalized (7a) and (9a), or not (7b) and (9b) -no reflexive clitic se or si is present.
Many constructions with inherent reciprocal verbs, however, contain the reflexive clitic se or si.
As this reflexive clitic is present in all instances of these verbs, it is usually classified as a part of their verb lemmas. 5The reflexive inherent reciprocal verbs in Czech can be further subclassified 4 We disregard changes in topic-focus articulation here.
5 The classification of the clitic se or si as a part of verb lemmas with inherent reciprocal verbs is supported by the fact that their presence in such constructions is not associated with any valency position of these verbs, as the following constructions of the verb sázet se 'to bet' show: if the clitic se is replaced (i) by the long form of the reflexive pronoun sebe, (ii) by the pronoun je 'them ', or (iii) Dimitriadis (2004), Siloni (2001) and Evans (2008) under the term discontinuous reciprocal verbs.In Czech they can be derived from both transitive and ditransitive verbs without the feature of symmetry in their lexical meaning by the lexical operation of reciprocalization; this operation consists in the use of the derivational morphemes se or si, which intransitivize the respective verbs.See, for example, the reciprocal verbs políbit se 'to kiss' in (11b) derived by the clitic se from the transitive verb políbit 'to kiss' (11a) and vyprávět si 'to tell (something to each other)' in (12b) derived by the clitic si from the ditransitive verb vyprávět 'to tell (something to somebody)' (12a). 6As discussed in Dimitriadis (2004), derived inherent reciprocal verbs exhibit specific syntactic properties.The participants of these verbs -despite being involved in symmetry -always remain expressed in separate syntactic positions determined by the respective complementations: one participant is always mapped onto valency complementation expressed in the subject position, while the other corresponds to the complementation which has the comitative prepositional form s+Instr 'with+Instr', see (11b) and (12b).Dimitriadis (2004)  A specific attribute "reciprverb" attached to lexical units corresponding to reciprocal verbs provides information on their type.In case of inherent reciprocal verbs of all types (A)-(D), this attribute has the value "inherent".To each inherent reciprocal verb where the clitic se or si functions as a derivational means, the specific attribute "derived" is attached, recording information as to whether the given verb is derived by the lexical operation of decausativization (the value "decaus"), or by lexical reciprocalization resulting in derived inherent reciprocal verbs (the value "lex-reciprocal").In the VALLEX lexicon, 201 lexical units of verbs in total are annotated as inherent reciprocal verbs (109 out of them have irreflexive lemmas, 33 represent reflexive tantum verbs, 29 verbs with derived reflexive lemmas are decausative verbs, and 30 represent derived inherent reciprocal verbs), see Table 1.In addition, the attribute "reciprevent" describes whether reciprocal verbs refer to a joint action in which the participants involved act symmetrically (the value "joint", e.g.vyjednávat 'to negotiate', mluvit (s někým) 'to talk (with somebody)', oddělit 'to separate'), or to a plurality of actions where each single action is asymmetrical (the value "distributed", e.g.udávat 'to report each other').The annotation of inherent reciprocal verbs reveals that these predominantly express joint actions.Surprisingly, reciprocal events that are denoted by a small number of derived inherent reciprocal verbs in the annotated data can be interpreted as a series of asymmetrical actions (e.g., navštěvovat se 'to visit' and vyprávět si 'to tell'), c.f. (Dimitriadis 2004).
Finally, each relevant lexical unit is assigned a specific attribute "recipr" providing pairs of those valency complementations that are involved in reciprocity and which can be thus reciprocalized, as is discussed in more detail in Section See Figure 2, displaying the lexical entry of the derived inherent reciprocal verb políbit se 'to kiss' (right).

Types of Syntactic Reciprocal Verbs
Syntactic reciprocal verbs are those for which the lexical meaning does not imply symmetry; however, they allow their participants to be put into symmetry (e.g., the verbs podezírat 'to suspect', řadit 'to arrange' and políbit 'to kiss') (Panevová & Mikulová 2007;Siloni 2008;Evans 2008).This symmetry is achieved by the syntactic operation of reciprocalization which, when applied to the given verbs, results in reciprocal constructions.In contrast to inherent reciprocal verbs (Section 2.1), Czech syntactic reciprocal verbs represent an open group of verbs with various semantic and syntactic properties, comprising intransitive (13), transititive ( 14) and ditransitive verbs (15).Similar to in the case of inherent reciprocal verbs, one participant which can be involved in symmetry is expressed in the subject position in the nominative, and the other participant occupies either the direct object position expressed in the accusative ( 14), or the indirect object position (13), which can have various forms.
In rare cases, syntactic reciprocal verbs realize reciprocity between participants when one of them is mapped onto the direct object position in the accusative and the other corresponds to the indirect object position expressed in various forms ( 16).
( (B) Those syntactic reciprocal verbs that have reflexive lemmas can first represent reflexive tantum verbs, verbs without irreflexive counterparts (e.g., podívat se 'to look', postěžovat si 'to complain', hledět si 'mind'), or verbs with semantically unrelated irreflexive counterparts (e.g., chovat se 'to behave'), with which the clitics se or si represent an obligatory part of their verb lemmas.Second, with a small number of verbs, the reflexive clitic se or si is an optional part of their verb lemmas, the use of which does not bring about any changes in meaning and/or syntactic behavior (e.g., pamatovat (si) 'to remember').
(C) Finally, the clitic se functions as a derivational means of decausative syntactic reciprocal verbs, which are derived by the lexical operation of decausativization from transitive or ditransitive syntactic reciprocal verbs (e.g., nakazit se 'be infected' ← nakazit 'to infect', opřít se 'lean' ← opřít 'lean', stáhnout se 'to retreat' ← stáhnout 'to withdraw').With decausative syntactic reciprocal verbs, the given clitic has the same function as with inherent reciprocal verbs (as discussed in Section 2.1.1.)

Representation of Syntactic Reciprocal Verbs in the VALLEX Lexicon
Syntactic reciprocal verbs are represented in the lexicon by the respective lexical units of verbs in lexemes headed by their respective (irreflexive or reflexive) lemmas.Syntactic reciprocal verbs of all types (A)-(C) are identified by the value "gram" of the attribute "reciprverb".
The attribute "reciprevent" describes whether a syntactic reciprocal verb -when its participants are reciprocalized -refers to a joint action (the value "joint", e.g.cítit spolu 'to sympathize (with each other)', bojovat 'to fight', skoncovat spolu 'to finish (with each other)'), or to a series of actions where each single action is asymmetrical (the value "distributed", e.g.kritizovat 'to criticize', nazývat 'to call', pamatovat 'to remember').
In the VALLEX lexicon, out of 2,124 lexical units corresponding to reciprocal verbs, 1,923 (90.54%) represent syntactic reciprocal verbs.As the annotation revealed, syntactic reciprocal verbs predominantly express distributed reciprocal events (almost 70%), while joint reciprocal events with syntactic reciprocal verbs are rather rare.See Table 1, above.
The valency frames of syntactic reciprocal verbs stored in the VALLEX lexicon describe the usage of these verbs in unreciprocal constructions.Their reciprocal constructions can be obtained by application of rules, as described in Section 3.2 -these rules make use of further subclassification of syntactic reciprocal verbs, based on information about which pair (or triplet in rare cases) of valency complementations are involved in reciprocity.Similar as for inherent reciprocal verbs, this information is provided by the attribute "recipr".
See the left lexical entry displaying the syntactic reciprocal verb políbit 'to kiss' in Figure 2, above.

Reciprocal Constructions in VALLEX
This section thoroughly describes the operation of syntactic reciprocalization.This operation is systematic enough to be captured by formal rules operating over the information stored in the lexicon.
On the basis of these rules, all possible morpho-syntactic manifestations of both inherent and syntactic reciprocal verbs can be obtained.As these rules represent an economic and systematic way of language description, they are included in the lexicon.

Reciprocal Constructions of Inherent Reciprocal Verbs
Inherent reciprocal verbs express symmetry in each of their instances (see Section 2.1), whether syntactic reciprocalization is applied to them or not.In case this syntactic operation is used, the participants involved in symmetry are not expressed in separate syntactic positions, but instead fill a single syntactic position of either subject (with subject-oriented inherent reciprocal verbs), or direct object (with object-oriented verbs of the given type) (derived inherent reciprocal verbs being the only exception, see Section 2.1.1,type (D)).As a result, the given syntactic position is plural, expressed either by coordinating (17b) or subordinating coordination (17c), or by morphological (18b), or semantic plural (17d).
The less prominent syntactic position determined by the other valency complementation involved in reciprocity, typically the position of indirect object, is either deleted from the surface, or is filled with the reflexive pronoun, depending on the form of the given complementation.Two forms are typical of this complemenation with inherent reciprocal verbs: the comitative form s+Instr 'with+Instr' and the prepositional form od+Gen 'form+Gen'.In the first case, the indirect position is removed, compare (17a) with (17b), while in the latter case the indirect object is occupied by the respective form of the reflexive pronoun sebe, compare (18a) and (18b).Alternatively, in both cases the less prominent position can be filled with the quantifier-like bipartite expression jeden druhý 'each other, lit.one other', see e.g.(Evans 2008) -here the first part jeden 'each', usually referred to as "range argument" (Heim et al. 1991), has the form of the nominative (with subject-oriented verbs) (17e), or the accusative (with object-oriented verbs) (18c), while the second part druhý, referred to as "contrast argument", is inflected for the case (prepositionless or prepositional) as the given complementation prescribes; both parts have the singular form and exhibit the agreement in gender with the reciprocalized participants, compare (17e) with (17a) on the one hand and (18c) with (18a) on the other.
Further, reciprocity can be optionally emphasized by the adverbial modifiers navzájem, vzájemně, 'mutually'.Moreover, with inherent reciprocal verbs with the indirect object in the form s+Instr 'with+Instr', the modifiers spolu 'together' or mezi sebou 'between each other' can be used as well.
See Figure 3, exemplifying the rules capturing morpho-syntactic properties of reciprocal constructions. (

Reciprocal Constructions of Syntactic Reciprocal Verbs
Syntactic reciprocalization with syntactic reciprocal verbs is a productive process.In Czech, there are only few restrictions for its application concerning the semantic homogeneity of participants and their status with respect to topic-focus articulation (Panevová 1999).
In reciprocal constructions of syntactic reciprocal verbs, the participants involved in symmetry are obligatorily reciprocalized.The reciprocal structure is thus characterized by a plural subject (with subject-oriented syntactic reciprocal verbs) (19b), or plural object (with object-oriented syntactic verbs) (20b).The less prominent syntactic position of the complementation involved in reciprocity is filled with the reflexive pronoun, which can have either the clitic or long form, the morphemic case of which is determined by the given complementation, compare (19a) with (19b).In rare cases, if this complementation has the comitative form s+Instr 'with+Instr', it is not expressed on the surface.Moreover, the less prominent position can also be filled with the quantifier-like bipartite expression jeden druhý 'each other', and the same morphological marking as in reciprocal structures with inherent reciprocal verbs applies (see Section 3.1).
In reciprocal constructions marked by the reflexive pronoun, the adverbial modifiers vzájemně, navzájem 'mutually', or in a limited cases also the modifiers spolu and dohromady 'together', can further emphasize the reciprocal meaning.In case of ambiguity with reflexive constructions, these modifiers have a disambiguating function.See, for example, the construction with the verb obviňovat 'to accuse' (21a), which can have either reciprocal interpretation (21b), or reflexive interpretation (21c).
See Figure 3  Haplology with Czech reciprocal verbs.In reciprocal constructions formed by syntactic reciprocal verbs with reflexive lemmas, both the clitics se and si are subject to haplology in cases when reciprocity is marked by the clitic form of the reflexive pronoun (Petkevič 2013;Rosen 2014).In the case of haplology, the single occurrence of the reflexive clitic se or si is associated with both the reflexive pronoun and the reflexive morpheme representing a part of a verb lemma.For example, in the reciprocal construction of the reflexive tantum verb stěžovat si 'to complain' in ( 22), a single occurrence of the clitic si represents both the verb lemma and the reflexive pronoun.In the case of haplology, reciprocity is obligatorily marked by the adverbs.
(22) Otec a matka si navzájem stěžují na synovo chování.father and mother REFL-clitic verblemma/reflpron mutually complain about son's behavior 'Father and mother are complaining to each other about their son's behavior.'

Conclusion
In this paper, we have proposed a theoretically adequate and economical description of Czech reciprocal verbs in the valency lexicon of Czech verbs, VALLEX.We have demonstrated that, for this purpose, three-fold information on the type of reciprocal verbs, on the type of reciprocal events they denote, and on valency complementations that are involved in reciprocity, is sufficient for their adequate description.Such a formalized representation of reciprocity allows the user (being it a human or computer) to generate well-formed reciprocal structures of the relevant lexical units of Czech verbs.

( 1a )
Petr se hádá s Pavlem a zároveň Pavel se hádá s Petrem.Peter REFL quarrels with Paul and at the same time Paul REFL quarrels with Peter 'Peter is quarreling with Paul and at the same time Paul is quarreling with Peter.' (1b) Petr a Pavel se hádají.Peter and Paul REFL quarrel 'Peter and Paul are quarreling.'(2) Petr a Pavel se na sebe dívají.Peter and Paul REFL at REFL look 'Peter and Paul are looking at each other.'

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the sentences Jan políbil Marii.'John kissed Mary.' (left) and Jan a Marie se políbili (navzájem).'John and Mary kissed each other.' (right).For the reciprocal construction, the scheme models doubling the thematic roles of the situational participants, their plurality, and symmetrical correspondence to valency complementations, as well as their morphemic forms.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Two lexical entries of the verbs políbit 'to kiss' and políbit se 'to kiss', representing different types of reciprocal verbs, as they are described in the VALLEX lexicon.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Examples of the simplified rules capturing the morpho-syntactic properties of reciprocal constructions for both inherent and syntactic reciprocal verbs in the VALLEX lexicon (two rules are successively applied to the relevant valency frames).
Peter nom.sg.masc (REFL verblemma ) corresponded with Paul s+instr.sg.masc .≈ Paul nom.sg.masc (REFL verblemma ) corresponded with Peter s+instr.sg.masc 'Peter corresponded with Paul.≈ Paul corresponded with Peter.' Kolega diskutoval všechna rozhodnutí s kolegou.colleague nom.sg.masc discussed all decisions with colleague s+instr.sg.masc 'The colleague discussed all decisions with his colleague.'(8) Kamarádi se (spolu) sázeli o pivo, kdo bude rychlejší.friends nom.pl.mascREFL verblemma (together) bet about beer who will be faster 'Friends were betting about beer who would be faster.' ).For further information on the reciprocal constructions of these verbs, see Section 3.1.(6a) Petr a Pavel (si) korespondovali.Peter nom.sg.masc and Paul nom.sg.masc (REFL verblemma ) corresponded 'Peter and Paul corresponded with each other.' (6b) Petr (si) korespondoval s Pavlem.≈ Pavel (si) korespondoval s Petrem.(9a) Kriminalisté porovnávali otisk prstu A a otisk B. criminal investigators compared print acc.sg.masc of finger A and print acc.sg.mascB 'Criminal investigators were comparing fingerprint A and fingerprint B.' (9b) Kriminalisté porovnávali otisk prstu A s otiskem B. ≈ Kriminalisté porovnávali otisk prstu B s otiskem A. criminal investigators compared print acc.sg.masc of finger A with print s+instrsg.mascB. ≈ Criminal investigators compared print acc.sg.masc of finger B with print s+instr.sg.mascA 'Criminal investigators were comparing fingerprint A with fingerprint B. ≈ Criminal investigators were comparing fingerprint B with fingerprint A.' In contrast to syntactically reciprocal verbs (see Section 2.2), inherent reciprocal verbs express symmetry even when the participants of the events denoted by these verbs are not reciprocalized.See examples (6b) and ( Reflexive tantum reciprocal verbs.These verbs have no irreflexive counterparts (e.g., poprat se 'to brawl' and *poprat) or they have only a seeming counterpart, which has, however, a completely unrelated meaning (e.g., sázet se 'to bet' (8) and sázet 'to plant').The clitic with reflexive tantum reciprocal verbs has no overt semantic and/or syntactic function.In rare cases, inherent reciprocal verbs can be either irreflexive or reflexive, without any substantial shift in their semantics or syntax, see the verb korespondovat (si) 'to correspond' in (6a,b), which can be used either with or without the reflexive clitic si, without any change in its meaning and/or syntactic behavior.(C)Decausative reciprocal verbs.With some inherent reciprocal verbs, the clitic se can function as a verbal intransitivizing operator, as exemplified in (10a).These reciprocal verbs are systematically related to irreflexive inherent reciprocal verbs, representing their causative transitive counterparts, by the lexical operation of decausativization; this operation drops a causator of an event denoted by the irreflexive transitive verb.Consequently, while the causative irreflexive verbs represent object-oriented inherent reciprocal verbs (10c), decausative reflexive reciprocal verbs are subject-oriented (10b).

2 Representation of Inherent Reciprocal Verbs in the VALLEX Lexicon Inherent
reciprocal verbs are represented in the lexicon by lexical units contained in separate lexemes introduced by their respective lemmas; if a verb is cliticized, its lemma includes the respective clitic se or si.As discussed in Section 2.1.1,the cliticization of inherent reciprocal verbs is either characteristic of reflexive tantum verbs (B), or it can be a result of lexical operations deriving either decausative verbs (C), or inherent reciprocal verbs (D).