Transcending Traditional Metrics: Evaluating School Leadership Effectiveness Through Emotional Intelligence and Qualitative Instruments

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Introduction
There is a growing body of evidence that associates effective school leadership with improved student outcomes and school effectiveness (Leithwood et al., 2004;Liebowitz & Porter, 2019;Day et al., 2020;Leithwood et al., 2020).Over the years, the effectiveness of school leaders has been gauged using traditional metrics such as the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS), has been recognised in the industry and business sector (Goleman, 1995;Saha et al., 2023;Gao et al., 2023), more research needs to be conducted in the field of education, particularly in the global South, to further establish and validate the roles of emotional intelligence in school leadership and management.
Given that people are emotional beings whose actions and decisions are influenced by their emotions (Hoy & Miskel, 2013), a leader's ability to understand and manage emotions is fundamental to fostering positive relationships, promoting collaboration, and attaining organisational success.Furthermore, research suggests that emotionally intelligent leaders are better equipped to navigate the complexities of educational environments, inspire trust and confidence among stakeholders, and cultivate a culture of innovation and continuous improvement (Brackett et al., 2006;Brackett et al., 2011;Gómez-Leal et al., 2022;Saha et al., 2023;Gao et al., 2023).Neglecting the role of emotional intelligence in leadership assessment potentially hinders the understanding of intrinsic behaviour that informs leadership beyond the surface.
In addition, traditional metrics have limitations when it comes to capturing the behavioural dimensions of leadership (Leithwood et al., 2023).This highlights the need for adaptable, contextoriented quantitative instruments to measure the effectiveness of school leadership.By exploring leadership effectiveness using both objective data-driven metrics and subjective human-centric instruments, we can gain a deeper understanding of leadership (Scheerens & Creemers, 2022;Hayat et al., 2023).This idea aligns with Day, Sun, and Grice's (2023) argument that a multi-perspective research approach is necessary for effectively assessing leadership effectiveness.They argue that considering context and complexities is crucial in leadership studies.Similarly, Raelin (2020) presents a compelling argument about the importance of using multiple methodologies to investigate leadership-as-practice.The author critiques the traditional approaches that focus on individual leaders or leadership traits and advocates for a more holistic research approach that views leadership as a social and collective activity.Raelin proposes the adoption of phenomenology inquiry, integrating discursive, narrative, ethnographic, aesthetic, and multimodal research methods.Jensen (2021), in practical terms, used qualitative analysis of audio and video recordings of school leadership development workshops to explore causal relationships in leadership effectiveness.Their findings demonstrate that quantitative metrics often overlook intrinsic factors that contribute to leadership, such as historical, cultural, and social factors.They highlight the role of qualitative research in exploring the managerial creativity of school principals and emphasise the importance of understanding the factors that contribute to leadership practices by complementing quantitative metrics with qualitative instruments.
One of the significant concerns about traditional quantitative metrics is their global relevance and validity when it comes to leadership constructs.This is because many of these assessment instruments originated from the Global North, where culture and religion have little influence on leadership (Walker & Dimmock, 2002;Leithwood et al., 2023).Therefore, there are validity concerns regarding their applicability in diverse cultural contexts, particularly in regions like Sahara-Africa (Adewale & Adekunle, 2023;Leithwood et al., 2023).This raises the issue that these instruments may be limited in their utility across different contexts and regions due to specific sample characteristics (Heinzová & Bindová, 2022).These limitations present challenges for studies that aim to compare leadership effectiveness across global regions (Mohamed et al., 2020;Kramer, 2023).Therefore, there is a need to develop and validate assessment tools that are adaptive, culturally sensitive, and specific to the context in order to measure the effectiveness of school leadership.Additionally, there is a growing recognition of the importance of integrating constructs that inform leadership in diverse cultural settings into traditional metrics.This paper focuses on the role of leaders' emotional intelligence in their effectiveness.
While emotional intelligence has been recognised as a component of leadership in the business sector and management sciences, its importance in education has not received adequate attention.Gómez-Leal et al. (2021) note that the emotional aspects of school leaders have been largely overlooked in educational administration literature.However, since 2021, it has become evident that managing emotions is crucial for effective school leadership.In a recent study, Leithwood, Sun, Schumacker, and Hua (2023) examined the reliability, validity, and predictive power of the Successful School Leadership Survey (SSLS).The study focused on investigating specific leadership practices that predict student achievement.While the SSLS provided valuable insights into leadership practices associated with successful schools, it did not explicitly consider emotional intelligence as a construct that contributes to leadership effectiveness.To address this gap, this paper begins with a literature review that explores the evolution and roles of emotional intelligence in leadership, providing empirical evidence of its impact on school leadership effectiveness.It also critiques the limitations of conventional metrics in evaluating school leadership and discusses the challenges posed by the absence of emotional intelligence constructs and qualitative instruments in these metrics.The study proposes a framework that addresses the deficiencies of traditional metrics.

Research questions
The study seeks to answer the following questions: • How does emotional intelligence influence the effectiveness of school leadership practices?
• To what extent do traditional metrics for measuring school leadership effectiveness cater to emotional intelligence as a construct contributing to leadership effectiveness?• What are the advantages of adaptable and contextual-oriented qualitative instruments in gauging non-numerically measurable attributes in leadership?• How can emotional intelligence construct and qualitative instruments be infused into the existing traditional metrics for assessing school leadership effectiveness?

Review of the Roles of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership
In its infancy, leadership scholars and a few psychologists accorded little to no recognition to emotional intelligence as a construct that contributes to leadership effectiveness.For instance, Landy (2005) criticised the historical and scientific validity of emotional intelligence (EI), noting that the construct lacks scientific validity and rigorous empirical evidence.Similarly, Locke (2005) critically examines the concept of emotional intelligence.The author argues that emotional intelligence is poorly defined and lacks a theoretical foundation, and is not different from well-known personality traits.In addition, Antonakis, Ashkanasy, and Dasborough (2009) examined emotional intelligence's role in leadership to establish its meaningfulness, validity, and predictive power.The authors critique its methodological soundness and ensure its items do not overlap existing constructs such as personality and intelligence quotient metrics.The results show a weak association between EI and leadership.This view was equally shared by Harms and Credé (2010).The authors argue that the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership is modest and should not be blown out of proportion, as some studies typified.They argued that more empirical evidence was needed to establish the correlation between intelligence and effective leadership.However, there are studies that establish that the role of emotional intelligence in leadership has transitioned from scepticism to recognised importance.This evidence confirms that EI is a construct that contributes to leadership effectiveness and resonates across disciplines such as psychology and business.Dreyfus (2008), Camuffo et al. (2012), Gutierrez, Spencer, and Zhu (2012), and Calvin and Mazlumoglu (2013)

Theoretical Underpinning
This study is grounded in Trait Emotional Intelligence Theory and Team Emotional Intelligence Theory.These two theories were chosen because they provide valuable insights into the relationship between emotional intelligence, leadership, and team dynamics within a school system (Petrides & Mavroveli, 2020).Trait Emotional Intelligence Theory explores how an individual's emotional competence influences their dispositions and strengths, which are crucial for effective leadership practices (Petrides, 2001).Conversely, Team Emotional Intelligence Theory enables us to comprehend the nature and influence of emotional dynamics within a group setting (Jordan et al., 2002).

Trait emotional intelligence theory (TEI)
Trait Emotional Intelligence Theory (TEI), developed by Konstantinos Petrides and Adrian Furnham in the early 2000s, was influenced by the earlier conceptualisation of emotional intelligence by Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer in the 1990s (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).However, while Salovey and Mayer's (1990) model of emotional intelligence emphasises an individual's ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions both in themselves and others, trait emotional intelligence theory introduced a trait-based approach that focuses on the stable dispositions underlying emotional functioning.The theory emphasises individual underlying personality traits associated with emotional functioning (Petrides & Furnham, 2001).The theory posits that individuals possess stable emotional traits that influence their perceptions, behaviours, and interactions.
Trait Emotional Intelligence is grounded in several fundamental principles.First, the theory posits that emotional intelligence is a psychological trait similar to other psychological constructs, such as the Big Five personality traits (Petrides et al., 2007).These traits include emotionality, self-control, sociability, and well-being, all of which contribute to individuals' emotional functioning.The second principle acknowledges emotional intelligence as a hierarchical structure consisting of lower-level facets like emotion perception, expression, and regulation, as well as higher-order factors that include interpersonal and intrapersonal awareness (Petrides, 2009).Additionally, trait emotional intelligence posits that an individual's EI level predicts outcomes; those with high trait emotional intelligence typically display adaptive emotional behaviours, manage stress well, and excel in social interactions (Petrides, Pérez-González, & Furnham, 2007).

Team emotional intelligence (TEI)
The second theory adopted in this study is team emotional intelligence (TEI), which examines the influence of collective emotional competencies on team cohesion, satisfaction, and performance.This theory is rooted in leadership and organisational behaviour and has gained popularity among scholars such as Brown (2022) and Mindeguia et al. (2021).According to Mindeguia et al. (2021), team emotional intelligence refers to a team's capacity to be aware of, understand, and manage emotions within the group in order to enhance communication, empathy, collaboration, and cohesion.The first principle emphasises the importance of emotional awareness among team members.It suggests that being sensitive to the emotional states of others promotes empathetic interactions and a supportive work environment (Jordan et al., 2002).The second principle posits that optimal emotional regulation within teams fosters a positive work environment, facilitates conflict management, and reduces stress, ultimately leading to increased team resilience and adaptability (Druskat & Wolff, 2001).Furthermore, team emotional intelligence promotes optimism and proactive problem-solving by encouraging positive thinking, enabling team members to identify, address, and overcome negative moods and challenges.The final principle asserts that team emotional intelligence is critical for maintaining team harmony (Jordan et al., 2002).This is achieved through open communication, empathy, and effective conflict-resolution strategies.Based on the principles of team emotional intelligence, it can be inferred that the sensitivity of leaders and team members to each other's emotions and the collective emotional state influences their performance and goal achievement.
The two theories we used in this study have implications for school leadership effectiveness beyond traditional metrics.In the context of school leadership, the awareness and application of the trait of emotional intelligence empower school leaders to understand and manage their own emotions and the emotions of others.It also enhances their ability to navigate interpersonal relationships and inspire their staff.School leaders with high levels of trait emotional intelligence excel in creating positive school environments, building trust with stakeholders, and promoting faculty collaboration (Day et al., 2020).These leaders are skilled in decision-making, resolving conflicts, leading instruction effectively, and improving student outcomes.
Schools inherently function as teams of individuals working towards a common goal.Therefore, understanding how team emotions impact team members' disposition and performance benefits both leaders and all team players.Leaders' awareness and use of emotional intelligence foster team emotional regulation, positive communication, and improved performance within a team (Jordan et al., 2002).It also facilitates collaborative leadership models, dispersed decision-making, and a supportive team culture.In short, school leaders who utilise the principles of team emotional intelligence gain the advantages of open communication, empathy, and mutual respect, resulting in enhanced team cohesion, adaptability, and innovation (Druskat & Wolff, 2001;Goleman, 2021).

Methodological Approach
The study utilises an integrative literature review (ILR), which involves gathering information from various sources such as theories, constructs, peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed journals to gain a deeper understanding of a specific phenomenon (Torraco, 2005;Kang & Lee, 2023;Ramírez Saiz et al., 2022;Martin & Sibbald, 2022).This approach involves synthesising data from multiple studies to identify patterns, trends, and gaps (Ramírez Saiz et al., 2022).ILR allows researchers to draw conclusions and make recommendations based on a wide range of evidence (Clark & Wakil, 2022).
Unlike a Systematic Literature Review (SLR), which aims for comprehensive coverage but allows for minimal researcher interpretation, ILR encourages critical data analysis, theoretical synthesis, and the development of new conceptual frameworks (Torraco, 2004).In this study, we chose ILR as our methodology because it aligns with the exploratory nature of our research question (Torraco, 2005).This approach also enabled us to integrate diverse literature sources to generate fresh insights and perspectives related to traditional metrics and leaders' emotional intelligence (Bem, 2016).Following Torraco's (2005) perspective, we followed the principles of ILR by defining the research questions, searching for relevant literature, analysing and synthesising relevant literature, identifying patterns and gaps, and finally, writing the review.

Defining the Research Question:
We started by defining the research questions that examine the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.Specifically, we sought to answer the following questions: 1) How does emotional intelligence influence the effectiveness of school leadership practices?2) To what extent do traditional metrics for measuring school leadership effectiveness cater to emotional intelligence as a construct contributing to leadership effectiveness?
3) What are the advantages of adaptable and contextually oriented qualitative instruments in gauging non-numerically measurable attributes in leadership?4) How can the emotional intelligence construct and qualitative instruments be infused into the existing traditional metrics for assessing school leadership effectiveness?
Searching for Relevant Literature: At this stage, we searched academic databases, including ScienceDirect, Taylor & Francis, PsycINFO, ERIC, and Google Scholar, utilising the following keywords: "school leadership," "emotional intelligence," "leadership effectiveness," "emotional intelligence and leadership," "trait emotional intelligence," "team emotional intelligence," "traditional metrics," "measuring leadership effectiveness," and "quantitative tools for measuring leadership."For an advanced search, we also used the Boolean operator "AND" to combine the earlier-mentioned keywords for precision.For example, ("school leadership" AND "emotional intelligence"), ("school leadership" AND "leadership effectiveness"), ("emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness"), ("emotional intelligence and leadership"), ("trait emotional intelligence"), and ("team emotional intelligence"), ("traditional metrics and leadership"), and ("quantitative research and leadership").In addition, we employed snowball sampling techniques to identify relevant articles cited within the retrieved literature.The inclusion criteria encompass studies between 1994-2024, peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed articles, books, and theoretical papers focusing on the interplay between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.Priority was given to studies that examined leadership effectiveness in education, studies that adopt traditional metrics and psychometrics to measure leadership effectiveness, studies that examined emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness, and studies that examined qualitative measurement of leadership effectiveness.
Analysing and Synthesizing Literature: At this stage, we embarked on data analysis and synthesis by employing thematic analysis methodology.Literature on traditional metrics and their weaknesses in measuring leadership effectiveness, as well as the role of emotional intelligence and qualitative data collection methods on leadership effectiveness, were systematically identified and categorised.
Identifying Patterns and Gaps: According to Torraco (2005), synthesising the literature involves weaving together different research streams to focus on core issues rather than simply reporting on previous studies.It is important to note that synthesis is not just a data dump but rather a creative process that generates new models, conceptual frameworks, or unique ideas based on the author's knowledge of the subject (p.362).In this particular case, we have combined relevant literature in a conventional manner while also incorporating a conceptual review.Through this analytical process, we have identified significant gaps in traditional metrics, particularly in their ability to capture school leaders' emotional competence.Additionally, we have noticed a lack of adaptable qualitative instruments for measuring leadership effectiveness.These insights have led to the development of a comprehensive conceptual framework that integrates emotional intelligence with traditional metrics in order to enhance the assessment of school leadership effectiveness.
Writing the Review: We synthesised our findings to create a comprehensive literature review.The review focuses on key themes, theoretical frameworks, and empirical evidence related to emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness in education.Additionally, our review underscores the lack of flexible qualitative tools for evaluating school leadership effectiveness.Based on these gaps, we developed a new conceptual framework to integrate emotional intelligence into traditional metrics.This framework aims to enhance the assessment of school leadership effectiveness by including emotional intelligence constructs and utilising qualitative instruments.Ultimately, this approach provides a more holistic evaluation of leadership effectiveness.

Flowchart 1: Record selection process
The following section presents 38 studies that were selected and thematised based on the research questions.Each table captures studies that are relevant to the theme or sub-theme.

Findings and Discussion
This section presents findings and discussion based on extant literature and theoretical connotations as units of analysis and data, as indicated in the methodology section.Efforts were made to ensure that each of the research questions in the study is answered.Hence, the findings and discussion are thematised and discussed under the following headings: • Emotional intelligence and school leadership effectiveness empirical evidence.
• Blind spots in conventional metrics for evaluating school leadership effectiveness.
• When emotional intelligence construct and quantitative instruments are lacking in traditional metrics.

Emotional intelligence and school leadership effectiveness: An empirical evidence
There is growing evidence of a positive correlation between leadership effectiveness and emotional intelligence in the industry.However, not much research has been conducted on this topic in the field of education.Therefore, we will delve into the findings of a few studies that confirm the impact of leaders' emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness within the school system.In a study by Zurita-Ortega et al. (2019), the intercession of leadership styles and emotional intelligence in educational institutions was examined.The study analysed data from 954 educators across 137 schools and universities using the Meta Mood Scale (TMMS-24).The findings indicate a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership styles.In another study, Gómez-Leal et al. ( 2021) conducted a systematic review using the PRISMA methodology.The findings reveal that school leaders' emotional intelligence correlates with enhanced teacher satisfaction and performance.Consistent with previous studies, Wu (2023) investigated the intersection of emotional intelligence and school leadership in a study titled "The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence of School Principals, Psychological Climate, and Teacher Motivation."The authors surveyed 336 teachers from various educational settings.The result indicates a significant correlation among the three variables, highlighting emotional intelligence's role in cultivating positive school climates and boosting teacher motivation.Moreover, Al-shatarat et al. ( 2023) investigated the influence of emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness in Jordanian schools through a study titled "Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness in Jordanian Schools: An Inclusive Study Using Structural Equation Model."It was revealed that emotional intelligence significantly predicts leadership efficacy, particularly through self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management.A study conducted by Hourani, Litz, and Parkman (2021) revealed the implications of leaders' lack of emotional intelligence.The authors examined Abu Dhabi's school leaders' emotional competence amidst changing educational policies.The professional competency of the school leaders was assessed across five emotional intelligence constructs: self-awareness, managing emotions, motivation, empathy, and social skills.The result shows that the school leaders are somewhat deficient in the emotional intelligence attributes needed to cope with the challenges posed by the changes that characterised the policy reform.For instance, one participant said, "When I encounter disrespect, I am angry and hurt.I need to learn how to deal with disrespect without being hurt.I can be deeply affected if anyone is disrespectful or unkind to me…This makes me dysfunctional at work" (Hourani et al.;2021: p.508).This result underscores the pivotal role of emotional intelligence in school leadership and management.Collectively, the above studies highlight the indispensable roles of emotional intelligence in educational leadership.They emphasise its influence on positive organisational climates, teacher job satisfaction, and performance.They also underscore the transformative potential of emotional intelligence in educational leadership and advocate for the strategic cultivation of emotional intelligence among educational leaders.

Blind Spots in conventional metrics for evaluating school leadership effectiveness
We examined the most commonly used metrics and scales in school leadership to assess effectiveness and performance in this area.We intentionally selected five metrics because they are widely and frequently used in educational leadership studies.The metrics we selected are the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS), Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), Principal Leadership Questionnaire (PLQ), Successful School Leadership Survey (SSLS), and Distributed Leadership Inventory (DLI).

Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS):
The Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS) is a widely used metric for measuring school leadership effectiveness.Developed by Philip Hallinger in 1983 andrefined in 1990, the scale consists of 50 Likert-scale items that assess three dimensions of school leadership: Defining the School Mission, Managing the Instructional Program, and Developing the School Learning Climate (Hallinger et al., 1996).While PIMRS provides a structured framework for assessing instructional leadership, it does not include the construct of emotional intelligence (EI) in gauging principal effectiveness.This view is supported by the study conducted by Chen & Guo (2020), which examined the influence of school principals' emotional intelligence on teachers' instructional strategies, mediated by the principals' instructional leadership.In this study, Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale, and the Instructional Strategy Scale were used as instruments.A total of 534 primary teachers from 54 primary schools in China participated by responding to a questionnaire.The study, using structural equation modelling, confirmed that principals' emotional intelligence and instructional leadership significantly impact teachers' instructional strategies.
The findings highlight the importance of principals' emotional intelligence and instructional leadership in enhancing teaching practices and evaluating principal effectiveness.It is worth noting that the need for additional tools to measure principals' emotional intelligence in the study suggests that PIMRS lacks a leadership emotional intelligence rating scale.Similarly, in a study conducted by Khokhar et al. (2023), which examined the link between principals' emotional intelligence and teachers' instructional strategies mediated by the principals' instructional leadership, strong correlations were found between principals' emotional intelligence and effective instructional strategies.This underscores the significance of emotional intelligence in enhancing instructional leadership and improving teaching environments.The study design, specifically the use of additional tools such as Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) and Instructional Strategy Scale (ISS), alongside PIMRS to measure the mediating roles of principals' emotional intelligence on teachers' teaching strategies via principals' instructional leadership, further suggests the inadequacy of PIMRS in capturing data on leadership emotional intelligence.The absence of emotional intelligence-focused items, such as assessing empathy, self-awareness, or relationship management, indicates an oversight in the scale.
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ): Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), also known as MLQ-5X, is a prominent tool for evaluating leadership behaviours within the framework of transformational leadership theory (Bass & Avolio, 1997;Avolio & Bass, 2004).The instrument was developed by Bass and Avolio in 1997 and has been improved upon over the years.The metrics comprise five constructs through which leadership effectiveness is measured.The first construct is Idealised Influence Attributed (IIA), which evaluates followers' perceptions of the leader as a role model.It elicits data on the admiration and respect that the leader commands.The second construct is Idealised Influence Behavior (IIB).It comprises items that demonstrate leadership ethical standards that constitute a model and inspiration for followers.Next is Inspirational Motivation (IM), used to elicit data on a leader's ability to motivate followers to attain organisational goals with a shared purpose.The fourth tenet of MLQ is Intellectual Stimulation (IS), a construct designed to elicit data on leaders' ability to foster innovation among followers.The fifth MLQ-5x construct is known as Individualised Consideration (IC).This construct focuses on how leaders recognise and support the unique developmental needs of each follower.Collectively, the MLQ-5 instrument encapsulates various dimensions of transformational leadership, transactional, and laissez-faire theories.As detailed in our review, MLQ-5X provides extensive insights into leadership behaviour.Nevertheless, the instrument fails to explicitly elicit data on leaders' emotional intelligence.Van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) criticised the MLQ-5X for its assumed multidimensional structure and lack of a theoretically grounded model to explain how its dimensions combine to form transformational leadership.They argue that the MLQ-5X fails to encompass the full spectrum of factors that contribute to leadership, of which emotional intelligence is one.Similarly, Batista-Foguet et al. (2021) further assessed the risks of conceptual misspecification in MLQ-5X constructs, highlighting its failure to reproduce the dimensional structure specified by theory and its inability to achieve empirical distinctiveness, especially regarding constructs such as emotional intelligence in leadership.This indicates a significant gap in measuring leadership effectiveness comprehensively.
In another study, Hajncl and Vučenović (2020) investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership using the MLQ-5X alongside other tools specifically designed to measure EI.They utilised the Vocabulary Emotion Test (VET-3) and the Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ-45) to assess emotional intelligence.Their findings indicated that the VET-3, which measures ability EI, showed no significant relationship with transformational leadership as assessed by the MLQ-5X.However, the self-report measure of EI (ESCQ-45) incrementally explained 5% of the variance in transformational leadership beyond personality traits and cognitive ability.Notably, the necessity to employ additional EI instruments in this study highlights a critical gap in the MLQ-5X.While the MLQ-5X effectively captures transformational leadership behaviours, it does not adequately measure emotional intelligence components such as empathy, self-awareness, and relationship management.This limitation suggests that the MLQ-5X does not fully encapsulate the emotional capacities essential for effective leadership, prompting researchers to use supplementary EI assessment tools.

Principal Leadership Questionnaire (PLQ):
Another metric used to assess the effectiveness of school leadership is the Principal Leadership Questionnaire (PLQ), developed by Jantzi and Leithwood in 1996.The PLQ employs 24 Likert-scale items to examine six dimensions of transformational leadership: the identification of a vision, modelling behaviour, acceptance of goals, setting high expectations, offering individualised support, and providing intellectual stimulation.Research indicates that the PLQ adequately captures the transactional aspects of school leadership practices.However, a gap exists regarding the PLQ's ability to measure emotional intelligence (EI), which is recognised as a significant determinant of leadership effectiveness.This gap was evident in a study conducted by Rahman et al. (2012), which explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership using the Emotional Intelligence Inventory (EQI) developed by Rahim et al. (2002Rahim et al. ( , 2006)).The study collected data from 166 subordinates who rated their supervisors' EI and transformational leadership behaviours.The EQI assesses five components of EI: selfawareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.The results indicated a positive correlation between EI and all components of transformational leadership.This finding emphasises the significance of emotional intelligence in effective leadership.However, the need to use a separate EI measurement tool (EQI) reveals a critical limitation in the PLQ.The PLQ lacks specific items to evaluate emotional intelligence, including empathy, self-awareness, and relationship management, which are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of leadership effectiveness.Consequently, researchers had to employ additional tools to capture these essential components of EI, highlighting a deficiency in the design of the PLQ.
In another study, Görgens-Ekermans and Roux (2021) reexamine the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and the components of transformational leadership (which the PLQ was designed to measure) with the aim of understanding how EI competencies influence leadership effectiveness.The study involved the development and testing of a structural model that depicted the relationships between EI competencies, transformational leadership behaviours, and the outcomes of effective leadership.The cross-sectional data comprised a sample of 267 respondents and was analysed using partial least squares Modelling.The study revealed that the components of transformational leadership were significantly influenced by various EI competencies.The study further confirmed that EI competencies exhibit a hierarchical order and differentially impact transformational leadership behaviours.However, the need to employ additional EI-specific measurement tools, such as those assessing relationship management and social awareness, underscored the inadequacy of the PLQ in capturing these crucial aspects of leadership.This indicates a significant gap in the design of the PLQ, as it fails to measure the emotional intelligence components that are vital for a comprehensive evaluation of leadership effectiveness.In light of these findings, it is evident that the PLQ, as a tool for measuring transformational leadership effectiveness, falls short in capturing the emotional aspects that contribute to leadership effectiveness.

Distributed Leadership Inventory (DLI):
Extant literature suggests that effective distributed leadership enhances organisational effectiveness, boosts teacher satisfaction, and improves student outcomes (Harris et al., 2007;Spillane et al., 2004).Similar to some of the traditional instruments we previously examined, the Distributed Leadership Inventory (DLI) measures the collaborative and shared responsibility aspects of leadership (Hulpia et al., 2009).The inventory includes 23 items with a Likert scale of 0 to 4. Specifically, the distributed leadership inventory evaluates elements of distributed leadership across three primary factors: support, supervision, and cohesive leadership team (Hulpia et al., 2009b).Little research has been conducted on how the DLI collects data regarding the impact of leaders' emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness.However, a recent study by Li, Liu, and Li (2024) indicates that it lacks components for assessing emotional intelligence (EI), such as empathy, self-awareness, and relationship management, which are crucial for effective leadership.The study highlights that distributed leadership significantly influences social and emotional competence.Moreover, a critical review of the constructs that make up the DLI reveals that it does not address the integration of emotional intelligence in measuring leadership effectiveness.Leithwood, Sun, Schumacker, and Hua (2023) present SSLS as a metric for measuring school leadership practices.The 22-item metric has four constructs: Setting Directions, Building Relationships and Developing People, Developing the Organization to Support Desired Practices, and Improving the Instructional Program (Polatcan et al., 2023).The study elicited data from 1,401 teachers to examine measurement invariance, score reliability, construct and predictive validity through the Many-Facet Rasch model, second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis, and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)-Path modelling to validate the instrument.The findings confirmed the instrument's reliability and validity for scoring school leaders' effectiveness vis-a-vis student outcomes.Nevertheless, the absence of the impact of school leaders' emotional compositions on their overall leadership practices leaves a vacuum for further exploration.Leithwood et al. (2023), who are proponents of SSLS, also acknowledged the limitation of the applicability of the psychometric properties of the instruments vis-a-vis its application across diverse contexts.This limitation is key because leadership effectiveness is often mediated by emotional intelligence.In a recent study, Munira, Rahman, and Akhter (2022) found that emotional intelligence components, including self-awareness, empathy, and social skills, significantly impact sustainable leadership in various organisational settings.In the same vein, Yuan (2024) also noted that emotional intelligence is foundational to leadership effectiveness, thereby advocating that leadership development training should incorporate a dimension of emotional intelligence to enhance leadership effectiveness.In addition, Maamari and Majdalani (2017) explore the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership tasks and organisational climate.They found that leadership assessments that lack emotional intelligence components may miss critical dimensions of leadership efficacy, as evidenced in the SSLS scale.Buttressing this view, Ribeiro et al. (2019) also note that leadership emotional competencies are essential for effective leadership in schools.Given the above, the absence of an emotional intelligence scale in SSLS presents a significant gap when it comes to the measurement of school leadership effectiveness.This gap limits the instrument's ability to provide a comprehensive measurement of leadership effectiveness, as emotional intelligence contributes to leadership effectiveness.

When emotional intelligence construct and quantitative instruments are lacking in traditional metrics
Lack of emotional intelligence (EI) as a construct in traditional metrics for measuring leadership effectiveness poses a challenge to ascertaining all-encompassing leadership effectiveness (Leithwood et al., 2008).This is because leaders who are deficient in EI often fail to foster positive relationships within the school community, particularly among teachers, students, and parents.This deficiency manifests through poor communication, a lack of empathy, and a lack of conflict resolution skills, which culminate in heightened conflicts, mistrust, and diminished productivity (Brackett & Katulak, 2013;Bradberry & Greaves, 2009).School leaders who lack emotional intelligence skills are susceptible to unintentionally undermining and demotivating teachers.This attitude has been linked to low morale, a lack of job commitment, and poor student outcomes (Caillouet, 2018;Gómez-Leal et al., 2021).Moreover, EI deficiencies have been found to predispose leaders to stress and burnout, which impairs their ability to regulate emotions effectively.This, in turn, affects their decisionmaking abilities, problem-solving skills, and overall leadership effectiveness (Cherniss, 2000;Wiens, 2016).
Most quantitative-oriented traditional metrics for measuring leadership performance and effectiveness overlook contextual dynamics contributing to leadership practices (Leithwood et al., 2008;2023).Their limitations become apparent when they fail to capture the full spectrum of leadership practices and behaviour.While we acknowledge that quantitative metrics provide numerical data on obvious leadership attributes, they often fail to elicit data on constructs and attributes that are not easily measurable using quantitative instruments.Some of these leadership attributes include school leaders' behavioural patterns, communication styles, and interpersonal dynamics, all of which contribute to leadership practices and effectiveness (Spillane, 2006;Leithwood et al., 2008;Day et al., 2008;Marzano et al., 2005).This implies that the absence of qualitative tools in evaluating school leadership restricts the depth of insight into their effectiveness, thereby hindering leaders' ability to improve their practices over time.

Holistic school leadership assessment framework (HSLAF)
Drawing on evidence from literature regarding the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness, as well as the principles of Trait and Team Emotional Intelligence (TEI), we present the Holistic School Leadership Assessment Framework (HSLAF).This framework proposes the integration of emotional intelligence constructs and adaptive qualitative instruments into traditional leadership assessment metrics.The components of the framework include Expanded Traditional Metrics, Contextual Adaptable Instruments, Mixed Method Evaluation, and Continuous Improvement.

Expanded Traditional Metrics:
This component suggests that traditional metrics should include specific subscales aimed at measuring the emotional intelligence competencies of school leaders.These subscales should assess leadership attributes such as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, social skills, and relationship management (Boyatzis, 2018).By expanding the metrics in this way, we aim to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of a leader's effectiveness (Jordan et al., 2002;Petrides & Mavroveli, 2020).

Contextual Adaptable Instruments:
Recognising that leadership is influenced by cultural and contextual factors, we propose the development of leadership performance metrics and instruments that take these variables into account.The component of contextual adaptability in HSLAF emphasises the importance of using qualitative instruments that can be adjusted to align with the unique contexts of different school environments.This can be achieved through methods such as focus groups, case studies, and ethnography.By doing so, we believe it will enable a tailored exploration of leadership practices and their impact on overall school effectiveness (Leithwood et al., 2023).Mixed Method Evaluation: As indicated earlier in this study, the traditional metrics skew in favour of the qualitative research approach.Hence, deep meaning and insights regarding leadership practices are lost due to the limitations that characterise these instruments.Because of this, we advocate for the adoption of a mixed-method evaluation instrument that provides a balanced view of leadership practices.We believe this dual approach would facilitate a deeper understanding of the interplay of leadership behaviour, emotional dynamics, and contextual variables that impact school leadership effectiveness.
Continuous Improvement: This element of HSLAF recognises the importance of a data-driven cyclical assessment process that fosters continuous improvement of measuring instruments that encompass emotional intelligence constructs and adaptive qualitative tools.Therefore, continuous improvement through regular feedback is essential to determine the effectiveness of instruments that adopt HSLAF propositions.Such instruments should be evaluated and revised based on observed weaknesses in measuring leaders' emotional intelligence and the integration of qualitative instruments.
In summary, the proposed Holistic School Leadership Assessment Framework (HSLAF) integrates the emotional intelligence construct with traditional metrics, complemented by adaptable qualitative instruments.This configuration provides a comprehensive methodology for evaluating school leadership effectiveness.Furthermore, the framework maintains that educational institutions can achieve a comprehensive understanding of attributes that constitute effective school leadership by integrating emotional constructs and adaptable qualitative dimensions into leadership effectiveness gauging metrics.

Conclusion
The study objective was to examine the often-used leadership assessment metrics in the domain of school leadership, noting their failure to encapsulate scales that measure leadership emotional intelligence.The study also sought to underscore the importance of adaptable quantitative instruments in the assessment of leadership effectiveness.Other areas covered in the study include Trait and Team Emotional intelligence and their impact on leadership.The findings were thematised under titles that typify the evolution of emotional intelligence as a construct in leadership, empirical evidence on the roles of emotional intelligence in leadership, and the deficiencies of traditional metrics and their implications.These explanations show that the emotional intelligence construct has garnered attention and amassed evidence as a valid component and a predictor of leadership effectiveness.Hence, the study advanced the Holistic School Leadership Assessment Framework (HSLF) as a model for integrating emotional intelligence constructs and adaptable qualitative instruments into traditional metrics.

Limitations and suggestions for further studies
This study has contributed to the body of knowledge emphasising emotional intelligence as a construct that shapes school leadership practices.It also advocates adopting a mixed-method approach to understanding leadership effectiveness.Nevertheless, its reliance on secondary data and theoretical synthesis limits the generalizability of the findings to real-world educational settings.Moreover, the scope of the study was limited to conceptual exploration.Hence, further empirical research across diverse educational contexts is needed to validate the proposed conceptual framework.
This study opens various paths for further research.To validate the findings in this study, we suggest that further studies could adopt mixed methods to test the proposed framework.Also, longitudinal studies could be conducted to examine the impact of principal emotional intelligence on teachers' instructional leadership and student learning outcomes.In addition, we suggest that comparative studies across various cultural contexts be carried out to reveal how cultural differences shape emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.Lastly, efforts to develop and validate instruments for assessing emotional intelligence in school leaders could offer valuable information for educational decision-makers and practitioners.Funding: This research did not receive any external funding.

Declarations
2019 SCREENING Records identified through databases search n = 390 Records identified through snowballing n = 55 Total record n = 445 Record after duplicate removal n = 303 Title and Abstracts Analysis Titles and Abstracts that did not meet the inclusion criteria n
reviewed various EI models, such as the Behavioral Model, including the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI), Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-I), and Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), regarding how various behavioural EI models measure leadership effectiveness.The study reveals that while some competencies, like emotional selfawareness, are consistently measured across models, others, such as adaptability and self-control, show significant variability.Notably, the ESCI model encompasses competencies specifically Boyatzis (2018)lobal validity of EI competencies in leadership.These studies demonstrate that EI traits predict performance in diverse settings, including among CEOs in Asia and team leaders at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).These studies underscore the universal applicability and effectiveness of EI competencies.Moreover,Boyatzis (2018)

Table 1 :
Emotional Intelligence and School Leadership Effectiveness S

/N Authors' Names Records Year of Publication
1Zurita-Ortega et al.Relationship between Leadership and EmotionalIntelligence in Teachers in Universities and Other Educational Centres: A Structural Equation Model.
The tables below present blind spots in conventional metrics for evaluating school leadership effectiveness.The metrics we selected are the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS), Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), Principal Leadership Questionnaire (PLQ), Successful School Leadership Survey (SSLS), and Distributed Leadership Inventory (DLI).

Table 7 :
When Emotional Intelligence Construct and Quantitative Instruments are Lacking in