New records of allochtonous, invasive and pest invertebrate species from the Republic of Macedonia

In this paper new data on allochtonous and invasive invertebrate species: Arion (Arion) cf. vulgaris Moquin-Tandon 1855, Cornu aspersum (O.F. Muller, 1774), Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, 1773), Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say, 1831), Trogoderma variabile Ballion, 1878, Stegobium paniceum (Linnaeus, 1758), Oxycarenus (s.str.) lavaterae (Fabricius, 1787), Corythucha ciliata (Say, 1832), Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann, 1910, Ceroplastes japonicus (Green, 1921), Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni Tozzetti, 1886) MacGillivray, 1921, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick, 1917) and Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande, 1895) from Macedonia are presented. The study represents faunistic data synthesis from different parts of Macedonia, based on collecting efforts of several taxonomic experts. The results of the study help to outline the composition of non-native and invasive invertebrate fauna and to narrow gaps concerning the knowledge of their distribution and introduction in Macedonia.


Introduction
The globalization and worldwide trading especially in the last few decades have facilitated the distribution and introduction of non-native species. Most of the common reasons for introduction of alien species include: climate change, land use changes, forest alterations, trade, tourism and biological control of pests (Vander Zanden 2005). According to , 23% of terrestrial arthropods (mainly insects) represent non-native species and it is important to note here, that not all introduced species become invasive. According to Cuttelod et al. (2008) invasive alien species are alien species which become established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, are an agent of change, and threaten native biological diversity.
It is widely accepted that only a small proportion of introduced species establish and only a small proportion of these species spread and become pests (Vander Zanden 2005), and these species are one of the most important causes of biodiversity loss.
Due to a lack of information and awareness, the issue of invasive species and their effects is often underestimated and adequate prevention and mitigation measures are lacking. brownish golden, or chestnut with yellow stripes, flecks, or streaks (characteristically interrupted brown color bands). C. aspersum is a hermaphrodite, reproduction is usually sexual, although self-fertilisation rarely occurs. About two weeks after fertilization, the snail lays a batch of about 80 eggs into crevices in the topsoil or sheltered under stones. In a year it may lay six batches. The young snails take one to two years to reach maturity. C. aspersum inhabits sheltered places, quarries, graveyards, urban gardens and waste ground. It is also found in deciduous woodland in the U.K. (Kerney 1999). C. aspersum is also a cosmopolitan invasive pest of a large range of agricultural crops in the Americas, SE Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and elevated areas (>1000 m) on many tropical and subtropical islands. It is a pest of specific crops in certain parts of the USA, it has emerged as a viticultural pest in South Africa and Australia (Barker 2002, Sanderson & Sirgel 2002. Fossils of C. aspersum have been found in the Mediterranean -Upper Pliocene strata in North Africa, as well as quaternary strata in southern France, Spain and Corsica. From there the species is penetrated in the synantropic parts of these areas, and was transported to the Mediterranean and neighboring coastal areas of the Atlantic. The expansion of the range of C. aspersum takes place in recent times, as the snail spreads worldwide by transport of fruits and vegetables, as well as the use of the species for cultivation. Probably the species penetrate in Macedonia with developing of snails-farming process.
Comments: This predaceous coccinellid was introduced into the USA from South-Eastern Asia as early as 1916 and since then it has been successfully used in many countries for the biological control of insect pests. Since 1990s the harlequin ladybird invaded natural ecosystems in USA. At present, H. axyridis occurs in almost many countries in Europe, North and South America, and Africa and now is considered to be an invasive species, which is having a) negative effect on native aphidophagous insects through direct competition and as a voracious, polyphagous predator, b) it also consumes soft fruit and is adversely affecting the wine and fruit growing industries and c) occurs at high densities in buildings during overwintering and is thus regarded as a human nuisance (Koch & Galvan 2008;Roy & Wajnberg 2008;Belyakova & Reznik 2013). In Europe it has spread very rapidly, particularly since 2002. It was also released in some Mediterranean countries (Portugal, Spain and Greece). It is predicted that the spread and increase within Europe will continue and that H. axyridis will become one of the most widely distributed coccinellids in the continent (Brown et al. 2008). This species is known from Macedonia from several localities: Dojran, Ohrid, Belčišta swamp, Skopje, Prilep, Kavadarci (Kulijer 2016).
Origin: The origin of Acanthoscelides obtectus is doubtful and rather unknown. The species may be of Mesoamerican (Central America) (Labeyrie 1990) or Andean origin (South America) (Alvarez et al. 2005).
Comments: It is cosmopolitan insect pest of leguminous seeds in the field and within stored products. The feeding of larval stages is of economic importance since as seed predator consumes parts of wild and cultivated bean, Phaseolus vulgaris L. causing damages. Acanthoscelides obtectus causes major economic losses in the Neotropical ecozone, as well as in the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan regions (Southgate 1978;Gepts 1998;Papa et al. 2006;Thakur 2012). This species co-disperse with the host which is an important strategy to expand its range over long distances. A. obtectus favors warmer climates, which limits its northern distribution. It is well known that major introduction of the species to Europe was made during the 19th century with grain shipments to Europe from where it subsequently spread throughout the world.
Comments: T. variabile is a polyphagous pest. The adults do not feed, but the diet of larval stages is based on a dried high-protein material like legumes, cereals, milk powder and material from herbarium and zoological collections (Peacock 1993;Beal 2003;Hagstrum et al. 2013).
Origin: Australia and New Zealand (Tomov et al. 2009). Comment: Drugstore beetles have a worldwide distribution, but are more abundant in warmer regions or in heated structures in more temperate climates. The distribution includes Balkan countries: Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria as well (Tomov et al. 2009). This species is not listed in the DAISIE database.
Stegobium paniceum is also known as bread beetle or biscuit beetle, and it is often confused with the cigarette beetle and the common furniture beetle Anobium punctatum, which belongs to the same family and often attacks similar stored products. It is important pest of various organic materials such as dried herbs, spices, cereals, leather, museum collection etc. and is even known to bore through aluminum, tin and lead sheets. The life cycle of a drugstore beetle is dependent on the temperature (i.e. the lower the temperature the slower the process) and food source.
The first records in neighboring regions on Balkan Peninsula were in Bulgaria (Kalushkov 2000;Simov et al. 2012). In the last two decades the species spread across almost all territory of the peninsula , Simov et al. 2012). Up to now its remains overlooked for Macedonia. This is the first record for the Macedonian fauna. The reference for Macedonia in Arslangündoğdu et al. (2018) is misidentification with the data for Montenegro (Rabitsch 2008, Velimirović et al. 1992. Origin: C. ciliata is an invasive alien species of North American origin (USA and Southern Canada) (Rabitsch 2008).
After the first European record of C. ciliata in Italy (Servadei 1966), the species spread across almost all of Europe during the last five decades . The most preferred areas in the invaded regions are those with Submediterranean and Mediterranean climate . It is regarded as established in the Balkans from the second half of 20th century (Rabitsch 2008;Simov et al. 2012). Up to now its remains overlooked for the territory of the Macedonia. In summer of 2011, 2013 and spring 2014 it was recorded for the first time in Macedonia -Vardar Valley -Veles, Gradsko and Gevgelija.
In its native range C. ciliata is trophically associated with Platanus occidentalis and other sycamores (Coyle et al. 2005;Henry & Froeschner 1988). In Macedonia the main host for C. ciliata is Platanus orientalis. Practically, C. ciliata has been found in the whole range of Oriental plane in Macedonia -Vardar River Valley. In the neighboring countries the species is bivoltine (Simov et al. 2012). Threats of the mass growth and development of the Sycamore lace bug to the stability the tree populations of Oriental plane in Macedonia, has not yet been studied. The bugs' feeding may weaken the plants vitality and support secondary infections by fungi and pathogens (Neal & Schaefer 2000;Rabitsch 2008).
C. japonicus develops one generation per year. The oviposition begins in the middle of May and continues until the end of June. The pest reaches maturity in the beginning of September (Jančar et al. 1999). After mating males die, but fertilized females overwinter Pellizzari & Camporese (1994).
Infestations of C. japonicus occur on foliage, stems and branches. This results in reduced vigor, but heavy infestations may result in chlorotic spotting, the premature shedding of leaves, wilting and the dieback of the stem. Honeydew, a sweet substance excreted by the scale insect, deposited on the leaves and fruits and serves as a medium for the growth of black sooty molds, which screen light from leaves and impair gas exchange and photosynthesis (Demirözer et al. 2004).
C. japonicus spreads mainly with plants for planting. Natural spread to very short distances is possible with neonate larvae in summer time. Overwintering as a young female and can survive outdoors at temperature several degrees below zero (Pellizzari & Camporese 1994).

Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni Tozzetti, 1886) MacGillivray, 1921 -mulberry scale (Hemiptera, Diaspididae)
Record: Gevgelija, on mulberry 1950/51, leg. Bekirov, 1958 Origin: Eastern Asia (China and Japan) where is pest on Prunus and Morus (MacLeod 2007). Comments: P. pentagona has spread widely to all warmer regions of the world. The scale was accidentally introduced to Italy in the nineteenth century and within Europe it now occurs in Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and Ukraine. In the past 20 years, it has spread northwards outdoors in Europe, perhaps because of the climate change. In colder countries e.g. Sweden, P. pentagona only lives in protected environments i.e. glasshouses (MacLeod 2007).
First report in Macedonia is on 4 ha mulberry trees in Gevgelia in 1953, but the author estimated that the appearance of the pest began in early the 50's of twentieth century (Atanasov 1958).
P. pentagona is one of the most polyphagous scale, being recorded from well over 100 plant genera, including numerous crop and ornamental plants species. The Mulberry scale has between 1 to 4 generation per year, depending upon climate. In Macedonia it develops 3 generations (Atanasov 1958). It overwinters in cold winter countries as fertilized female and can survive temperature as low as -20°C. Oviposition starts during mid-May or earlier depending on the climate. Crawlers, the first larval instar, appear after 1-2 months and actively search for a suitable feeding site. The females have three larval instars and male five. The generation can be completed for 25-54 days during the summer or 80-90 days during the winter. Each female lаys between 38-220 eggs (Atanasov 1959).
P. pentagona spreads mainly with plants for planting. Natural spread on very short distances is possible with neonate larvae in summer time before fixing on permanent place.
In the beginning of 1950' of the twentieth century in Macedonia P. pentagona has caused severe damages to mulberry, but very soon in 1957/58 after introduction of its natural enemy Prospaltela berlesei How (Atanasov 1960) the pest has been put under control since to 2008-2009 when economically significant outbreaks occurred on peach in Rosoman, Kavadarci (Postolovski & Lazarevska 2010). In 2008 the pest was found in southern part of France in tomato crops (Germain et al. 2009). Also, the first appearance of the pest in Italy happened in the spring of 2008 in tomato crops in southern part of Sardinia and Sicily (Speranza & Sannino 2012). In 2009 the pest was distributed on the Balkan Peninsula on Crete, Peloponnese and Western Greece in tomato greenhouses and also in Bulgaria in field and greenhouses in southern part of the country (Harizanova et al. 2009). That year, the pest is also recorded in greenhouses in Slovenia (Ţeţlina et al. 2011) and Croatia (Culjak et al. 2010). In 2010 T. absoluta is recorded in greenhouses with tomato and outdoor in coastal area of Montenegro (Hrnčić & Radonjić 2012) and Serbia (Tosevski et al. 2011).
First records of T. absoluta in Macedonia are in tomato greenhouses in the eastern part of the country in 2011 (Postolovski et al. 2011).
T. absoluta feeds almost exclusively on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) but there is also one report that it eats other plant species from Solanaceae family (Garcia & Espul 1982).
Tomato leaf miner has high biotic potential and develops 12-15 generations per year in greenhouses. After its introduction into Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, T. absoluta has already caused extensive economic damage. Infestation of tomato plants occur throughout the entire crop cycle. Feeding damage is caused by all larval instars and throughout the whole plant. The larvae feed on the mesophyll tissue on the leaves, forming irregular leaf mines or extensive galleries in the stem, which affect the development of the plants. The larvae also attack fruit and the entryways are used by secondary pathogens, leading to fruit rot. The impact of the pest includes severe yield loss reaching 100%, increasing tomato prices, bans on the trade of tomato including seedlings, an increase in synthetic insecticide applications, disruption of integrated management programs of other tomato pests, and an increase in the cost of crop protection. In addition, the outbreak of this pest led to a significant augmentation of risks for growers, consumers and the environment associated with the blind use of chemicals (Zappalà et al. 2012).

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande, 1895) -Western Flower Trips (Thysanoptera, Thripidae)
Record: CABI/EPPO, 1988 Origin: Southwestern US (Waterhouse & Norris 1989). Comments: F. occidentalis is native to Nort America. The western flower trips was first described in California in 1895, and since 1970s, it had invaded much of the word and became dominant population in most of the areas where it had been introduced (Kirk & Terry 2003).
The western flower thrips is widespread from sea level to sub-alpine altitudes. It is the most common thrips species. This thrips has spread to the Canary Islands, Europe, Hawaii, New Zealand, northern South America (Waterhouse & Norris 1989).
During the decades of 1970 and 1989 it spread to Europe and other countries in the world. In 1983 F. occidentalis was accidentally introduce in Netherland and later became main problem in field crops and orchards (Loomans 2003). In 1985 it was recorded in Danmark and Germany (CABI 2014), in 1987 the pest is recorded on chrysanthemum in Belgium (Clerco & Casteels 1992), in Czech Republic, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Poland (CABI 2014), in 1988 is recorded in Austria, Sicilia, Sardinia and Macedonia (CABI 2014). Today, this species is widespread in Macedonia in open field and greenhouses.
F. occidentalis is poor flier, but easily transported passively by the wind. It has been spread with international trade throughout subtropical and temperate regions of the world. In colder climates it is frequently a serious pest in greenhouses. The international spread of the western flower thrips occurred predominantly by the movement of horticultural material, such as cuttings, seedlings and potted plants. Within Europe, an outward spread from the original outbreak in the Netherlands is discernible. The speed of spread was 229±20km/year (Kirk & Terry 2003).
Thrips cause both direct and indirect injury to crops. Direct damage occurs when the thrips cause injury by feeding or oviposition. F. occidentalis is prevalent in flowers, but it can also be found on crop foliage and fruit, which reduce photosynthetic capacity (Shipp et al. 2000) and cause fruit surface dimpling. Indirect damage refers primarily to the transmission of viruses (Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Tomato chlorotic spot virus (TSCV), Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV), and Groundnut ring spot virus (GRSV). F. occidentalis is considered to be the predominant vector of TSWV worldwide, a serious virus for wide range of crop and non crop hosts and causes billions economic losses worldwide (Riley et al. 2011).
In warm regions or in greenhouses F.occidentalis develops 12-15 generation per year. Otherwise, adults and pupae will overwinter in sheltered places like under lumps of soil, tree bark, in grass and weeds, and only 1 or 2 generations may be completed. In spring, the adults migrate to flowering plants and start with oviposition. The female lays about 40-50 eggs, 1-2 per day. Each is inserted singly into the plant tissue.

Conclusion
It is highly important to follow the pathways of distribution and introduction of alien, invasive and pest species, to avoid vector-borne diseases and to prevent the negative impact and the habitat destruction on time. One of the steps to overcome this problem in Macedonia is to enrich the knowledge of the existing allochtonous fauna and to develop monitoring programs of their distribution. In general, the data regarding the presence and distribution of invasive species in Macedonia is far from satisfactory. The research contributes to enriching the knowledge of 11 invasive species, not registered in Macedonia before. Certainly, the list is not sufficient and further research on current topic is necessary with aim to enable the reconstruction of the distribution paths.