Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Chinese lexicon of deaf readers: A database of character decisions and a comparison between deaf and hearing readers

  • Original Manuscript
  • Published:
Behavior Research Methods Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We present a psycholinguistic study investigating lexical effects on simplified Chinese character recognition by deaf readers. Prior research suggests that deaf readers exhibit efficient orthographic processing and decreased reliance on speech-based phonology in word recognition compared to hearing readers. In this large-scale character decision study (25 participants, each evaluating 2500 real characters and 2500 pseudo-characters), we analyzed various factors influencing character recognition accuracy and speed in deaf readers. Deaf participants demonstrated greater accuracy and faster recognition when characters were more frequent, were acquired earlier, had more strokes, displayed higher orthographic complexity, were more imageable in reference, or were less concrete in reference. Comparison with a previous study of hearing readers revealed that the facilitative effect of frequency on character decision accuracy was stronger for deaf readers than hearing readers. The effect of orthographic-phonological regularity differed significantly for the two groups, indicating that deaf readers rely more on orthographic structure and less on phonological information during character recognition. Notably, increased stroke counts (i.e., higher orthographic complexity) hindered hearing readers but facilitated recognition processes in deaf readers, suggesting that deaf readers excel at recognizing characters based on orthographic structure. The database generated from this large-scale character decision study offers a valuable resource for further research and practical applications in deaf education and literacy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

All data and materials are publicly available at https://osf.io/qthfm/.

Notes

  1. Note that while other studies (Bonin et al., 2018; Khanna & Cortese, 2021; Zhang et al., 2006) have similarly found a processing advantage for abstract words, some have found the opposite pattern—i.e., a facilitative concreteness effect (Allen & Hulme, 2006; Bottini et al., 2022; Fliessbach et al., 2006).

  2. Sze et al. (2014, 2015) did not report on regularity effects but rather looked at the effect of a related measure, consistency. Sze et al. (2015) found that consistent characters were responded to faster than less consistent characters, with the effect being magnified for high-frequency characters.

  3. Learning strategies refer to actions and mental processes that learners employ to modulate how they encode and internalize information (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986).

References

  • Akaike, H. (1998). Information theory and an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In E. Parzen, K. Tanabe, & G. Kitagawa (Eds.), Selected papers of Hirotugu Akaike (pp. 199–213). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, R., & Hulme, C. (2006). Speech and language processing mechanisms in verbal serial recall. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(1), 64–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2006.02.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T. E., Clark, M. D., del Giudice, A., Koo, D., Lieberman, A., Mayberry, R., & Miller, P. (2009). Phonology and Reading: A Response to Wang, Trezek, Luckner, and Paul. American Annals of the Deaf, 154(4), 338–345. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.0.0109

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baayen, R. H., Feldman, L. B., & Schreuder, R. (2006). Morphological influences on the recognition of monosyllabic monomorphemic words. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(2), 290–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2006.03.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balota, D. A., Yap, M. J., Hutchison, K. A., Cortese, M. J., Kessler, B., Loftis, B., Neely, J. H., Nelson, D. L., Simpson, G. B., & Treiman, R. (2007). The English lexicon project. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 445–459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bélanger, N. N., Baum, S. R., & Mayberry, R. I. (2012a). Reading Difficulties in Adult Deaf Readers of French: Phonological Codes, Not Guilty! Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(3), 263–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2011.568555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bélanger, N. N., Mayberry, R. I., & Rayner, K. (2013). Orthographic and phonological preview benefits: Parafoveal processing in skilled and less-skilled deaf readers. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66(11), 2237–2252. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2013.780085

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bélanger, N. N., Slattery, T. J., Mayberry, R. I., & Rayner, K. (2012b). Skilled Deaf Readers have an Enhanced Perceptual Span in Reading. Psychological Science, 23(7), 816–823. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611435130

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonin, P., Méot, A., & Bugaiska, A. (2018). Concreteness norms for 1,659 French words: Relationships with other psycholinguistic variables and word recognition times. Behavior Research Methods, 50(6), 2366–2387. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1014-y

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosworth, R. G., & Dobkins, K. R. (2002). The Effects of Spatial Attention on Motion Processing in Deaf Signers, Hearing Signers, and Hearing Nonsigners. Brain and Cognition, 49(1), 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.2001.1497

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bottini, R., Morucci, P., D’Urso, A., Collignon, O., & Crepaldi, D. (2022). The concreteness advantage in lexical decision does not depend on perceptual simulations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(3), 731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brysbaert, M., & Ghyselinck, M. (2006). The effect of age of acquisition: Partly frequency related, partly frequency independent. Visual Cognition, 13(7–8), 992–1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, Q., & Brysbaert, M. (2010). SUBTLEX-CH: Chinese word and character frequencies based on film subtitles. PloS One, 5(6), e10729.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, Z. G., Huang, S., Xu, Z., & Zhao, N. (2022a). Objective ages of acquisition for 3300+ simplified Chinese characters. Behavior Research Methods, 54(1), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01626-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, Z. G., Zhao, N., Lin, H., Xu, Z., & Thierfelder, P. (2022b). Syntactic encoding in written language production by deaf writers: A structural priming study and a comparison with hearing writers. Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition.

  • Cates, D. M., Traxler, M. J., & Corina, D. P. (2022). Predictors of reading comprehension in deaf and hearing bilinguals. Applied Psycholinguistics, 43(1), 81–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y.-N., Hsu, C.-H., Tsai, J.-L., Chen, C.-L., & Lee, C.-Y. (2016). A psycholinguistic database for traditional Chinese character naming. Behavior Research Methods, 48, 112–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, B., Dent, K., You, W., & Wu, G. (2009a). Age of acquisition affects early orthographic processing during Chinese character recognition. Acta Psychologica, 130(3), 196–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.12.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H.-C., Vaid, J., & Wu, J.-T. (2009b). Homophone density and phonological frequency in Chinese word recognition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 24(7–8), 967–982.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Codina, C. J., Pascalis, O., Baseler, H. A., Levine, A. T., & Buckley, D. (2017). Peripheral Visual Reaction Time Is Faster in Deaf Adults and British Sign Language Interpreters than in Hearing Adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 50. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00050

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Coltheart, M. (2006). Dual route and connectionist models of reading: An overview. London Review of Education, 4(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110600574322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, M., Dewar, M., Turner, G., Collier, T., & Kapur, N. (2022). Evidence for superior encoding of detailed visual memories in deaf signers. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 9097.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Da, J. (2004). A corpus-based study of character and bigram frequencies in Chinese e-texts and its implications for Chinese language instruction. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on New Technologies in Teaching and Learning Chinese, 501–511.

  • Donnelly, S., & Verkuilen, J. (2017). Empirical logit analysis is not logistic regression. Journal of Memory and Language, 94, 28–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dye, M. W., & Bavelier, D. (2010). Attentional enhancements and deficits in deaf populations: An integrative review. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 28(2), 181–192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmorey, K., & Corina, D. (1993). Hemispheric specialization for ASL signs and English words: Differences between imageable and abstract forms. Neuropsychologia, 31(7), 645–653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmorey, K., Holcomb, P. J., & Midgley, K. J. (2021). Masked ERP repetition priming in deaf and hearing readers. Brain and Language, 214, 104903.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Emmorey, K., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1996). Enhanced image generation abilities in deaf signers: A right hemisphere effect. Brain and Cognition, 32(1), 28–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmorey, K., Kosslyn, S. M., & Bellugi, U. (1993). Visual imagery and visual-spatial language: Enhanced imagery abilities in deaf and hearing ASL signers. Cognition, 46(2), 139–181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emmorey, K., & Lee, B. (2021). The neurocognitive basis of skilled reading in prelingually and profoundly deaf adults. Language and Linguistics Compass, 15(2), e12407. https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12407

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, G., Miller, K., Shu, H., & Zhang, H. (2001). Rowed to Recovery: The Use of Phonological and Orthographic Information in Reading Chinese and English. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning. Memory & Cognition, 27(4), 1079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrand, L., New, B., Brysbaert, M., Keuleers, E., Bonin, P., Méot, A., Augustinova, M., & Pallier, C. (2010). The French Lexicon Project: Lexical decision data for 38,840 French words and 38,840 pseudowords. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 488–496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fliessbach, K., Weis, S., Klaver, P., Elger, C. E., & Weber, B. (2006). The effect of word concreteness on recognition memory. NeuroImage, 32(3), 1413–1421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.06.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, J., Fan, K., & Fei, J. (1993). Xiandai hanzi xue [The study of modern Chinese characters]. Higher Education Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghyselinck, M., Lewis, M. B., & Brysbaert, M. (2004). Age of acquisition and the cumulative-frequency hypothesis: A review of the literature and a new multi-task investigation. Acta Psychologica, 115(1), 43–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.11.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grömping, U. (2006). Relative Importance for Linear Regression in R: The Package relaimpo. Journal of Statistical Software, 17(1), 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez-Sigut, E., Vergara-Martínez, M., & Perea, M. (2017). Early use of phonological codes in deaf readers: An ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 106, 261–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez-Sigut, E., Vergara-Martinez, M., & Perea, M. (2019). Deaf readers benefit from lexical feedback during orthographic processing. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez-Sigut, E., Vergara-Martínez, M., & Perea, M. (2022). The impact of visual cues during visual word recognition in deaf readers: An ERP study. Cognition, 218, 104938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104938

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychological Review, 3, 662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartshorne, J. K., & Germine, L. T. (2015). When does cognitive functioning peak? The asynchronous rise and fall of different cognitive abilities across the life span. Psychological Science, 26(4), 433–443.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hocking, R. R. (2013). Methods and applications of linear models: Regression and the analysis of variance. John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmeister, R. J., & Caldwell-Harris, C. L. (2014). Acquiring English as a second language via print: The task for deaf children. Cognition, 132(2), 229–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.014

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hue, C.-W. (1992). Recognition Processes in Character Naming. In H.-C. Chen & O. J. L. Tzeng (Eds.), Advances in Psychology (Vol. 90, pp. 93–107). North-Holland. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)61888-9

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, L. P., & Barac-Cikoja, D. (2007). The comprehension of skilled deaf readers (pp. 244–280). Children’s Comprehension Problems in Oral and Written Language.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keuleers, E., Diependaele, K., & Brysbaert, M. (2010). Practice effects in large-scale visual word recognition studies: A lexical decision study on 14,000 Dutch mono-and disyllabic words and nonwords. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 174.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, M. M., & Cortese, M. J. (2021). How well imageability, concreteness, perceptual strength, and action strength predict recognition memory, lexical decision, and reading aloud performance. Memory, 29(5), 622–636.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kousta, S.-T., Vigliocco, G., Vinson, D. P., Andrews, M., & Del Campo, E. (2011). The representation of abstract words: Why emotion matters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(1), 14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leong, C. K., Cheng, P.-W., & Mulcahy, R. (1987). Automatic processing of morphemic orthography by mature readers. Language and Speech, 30(2), 181–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., Shu, H., & Li, P. (2007). Word naming and psycholinguistic norms: Chinese. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 192–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Z. F., Chen, C. Y., Tong, W., & Su, Y. Q. (2021). Deafness enhances perceptual span size in Chinese reading: Evidence from a gaze-contingent moving-window paradigm. PsyCh Journal, 10(4), 508–520. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.442

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lytle, R. R., Johnson, K. E., & Hui, Y. J. (2006). Deaf Education in China: History, Current Issues, and Emerging Deaf Voices. American Annals of the Deaf, 150(5), 457–469. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2006.0009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marschark, M. (2006). Intellectual functioning of deaf adults and children: Answers and questions. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18(1), 70–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayberry, R. I., del Giudice, A. A., & Lieberman, A. M. (2011). Reading Achievement in Relation to Phonological Coding and Awareness in Deaf Readers: A Meta-analysis. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16(2), 164–188. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enq049

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, S., & Emmorey, K. (1997). Face Processing by Deaf ASL Signers: Evidence for Expertise in Distinguishing Local Features. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2(4), 212–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morford, J. P., Occhino-Kehoe, C., Piñar, P., Wilkinson, E., & Kroll, J. F. (2017). The time course of cross-language activation in deaf ASL–English bilinguals*. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(2), 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672891500067X

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, P. V., Wang, Y., Trezek, B. J., & Luckner, J. L. (2009). Phonology Is Necessary, but Not Sufficient: A Rejoinder. American Annals of the Deaf, 154(4), 346–356. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.0.0110

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, D., Deng, Y., & Chen, B. (2003). 汉语多义单字词的识别优势效应 [The polysemy effect in Chinese one-character word identification]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 35(5), 569–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A. (2017). Lexical quality revisited (pp. 51–67). Developmental Perspectives in Written Language and Literacy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. Precursors of Functional Literacy, 11, 67–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. (2006). Reading Chinese characters: Orthography, phonology, meaning, and the lexical constituency model. na.

  • Perfetti, C. A., Liu, Y., & Tan, L. H. (2005). The Lexical Constituency Model: Some Implications of Research on Chinese for General Theories of Reading. Psychological Review, 112(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.112.1.43

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., & Sandak, R. (2000). Reading optimally builds on spoken language: Implications for deaf readers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5(1), 32–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proksch, J., & Bavelier, D. (2002). Changes in the Spatial Distribution of Visual Attention after Early Deafness. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(5), 687–701. https://doi.org/10.1162/08989290260138591

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team. (2023). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical. Computing. https://www.R-project.org/

  • Rowley, K. E. (2018). Visual Word Recognition in Deaf Readers: The interplay between orthographic, semantic and phonological information [PhD Thesis]. UCL (University College London).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sehyr, Z. S., & Emmorey, K. (2022). Contribution of lexical quality and sign language variables to reading comprehension. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 27(4), 355–372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheather, S. (2009). A Modern Approach to Regression with R. Springer Science & Business Media.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sze, W. P., Rickard Liow, S. J., & Yap, M. J. (2014). The Chinese Lexicon Project: A repository of lexical decision behavioral responses for 2,500 Chinese characters. Behavior Research Methods, 46(1), 263–273. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0355-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sze, W. P., Yap, M. J., & Rickard Liow, S. J. (2015). The role of lexical variables in the visual recognition of Chinese characters: A megastudy analysis. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(8), 1541–1570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thierfelder, P., Durantin, G., & Wigglesworth, G. (2020). The Effect of Word Predictability on Phonological Activation in Cantonese Reading: A Study of Eye-Fixations and Pupillary Response. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-020-09713-8

  • Thierfelder, P., Wigglesworth, G., & Tang, G. (2020a). Orthographic and phonological activation in Hong Kong deaf readers: An eye-tracking study. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820940223

  • Thierfelder, P., Wigglesworth, G., & Tang, G. (2020b). Sign phonological parameters modulate parafoveal preview effects in deaf readers. Cognition, 201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104286

  • Traxler, C. B. (2000). The Stanford Achievement Test, 9th Edition: National Norming and Performance Standards for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5(4), 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/5.4.337

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tse, C.-S., Yap, M. J., Chan, Y.-L., Sze, W. P., Shaoul, C., & Lin, D. (2017). The Chinese Lexicon Project: A megastudy of lexical decision performance for 25,000+ traditional Chinese two-character compound words. Behavior Research Methods, 49, 1503–1519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q., & Andrews, J. F. (2017). Literacy instruction in primary level deaf education in China. Deafness & Education International, 19(2), 63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, R., Huang, S., Zhou, Y., & Cai, Z. G. (2020). Chinese character handwriting: A large-scale behavioral study and a database. Behavior Research Methods, 52(1), 82–96. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01206-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., Trezek, B. J., Luckner, J. L., & Paul, P. V. (2008). The Role of Phonology and Phonologically Related Skills in Reading Instruction for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 153(4), 396–407. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.0.0061

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In C. M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Teaching (pp. 315–327). Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wen, Y., Qiu, Y., Leong, C. X. R., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2023). LexCHI: A quick lexical test for estimating language proficiency in Chinese. Behavior Research Methods. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02151-z

  • Wood, S., & Wood, M. S. (2015). Package ‘mgcv.’ R Package Version, 1(29), 729.

  • Yan, G., Lan, Z., Wang, Y., & Benson, V. (2020). Phonological Coding during Sentence Reading in Chinese Deaf Readers: An Eye-Tracking Study. Scientific Studies of Reading.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yan, M., Pan, J., Bélanger, N. N., & Shu, H. (2015). Chinese Deaf Readers Have Early Access to Parafoveal Semantics. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning. Memory & Cognition, 41(1), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000035

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J., McCandliss, B. D., Shu, H., & Zevin, J. D. (2009). Simulating language-specific and language-general effects in a statistical learning model of Chinese reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 61(2), 238–257.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, S., Zhang, S., & Wang, Q. (2016). P2 and behavioral effects of stroke count in Chinese characters: Evidence for an analytic and attentional view. Neuroscience Letters, 628, 123–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2016.06.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Q., Guo, C., Ding, J., & Wang, Z. (2006). Concreteness effects in the processing of Chinese words. Brain and Language, 96(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2005.04.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, J. C., Tan, L. H., Perry, C., & Montant, M. (2000). Phonology matters: The phonological frequency effect in written Chinese. Psychological Science, 11(3), 234–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Code availability

Codes for statistical analyses are publicly available at https://osf.io/qthfm/.

Author notes

All experimental materials, data, and analytical scripts are publicly available at the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/qthfm/).

This research was supported by a GRF grant from the Research Grants Committee (Project Number: 14600220) and a CUHK Faculty of Arts internal grant, both awarded to Z.G. Cai. We thank Weiyun Cai for help in data collection.

Funding

This research was funded by a direct grant from the Faculty of Arts, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, and a grant by the Research Grants Council (14613722), both to ZGC. Additionally, PT is supported by a separate grant from the Research Grants Council (PDFS2122-4H04).

Author information

Author notes

  1. Philip Thierfelder and Zhenguang G. Cai are Co-first authors.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Linguistics and Modern Languages, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong, SAR

    Philip Thierfelder, Zhenguang G. Cai & Shuting Huang

  2. Shanghai International Studies University, 550 Dalian Road(W), Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

    Hao Lin

Authors
  1. Philip Thierfelder
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zhenguang G. Cai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shuting Huang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Hao Lin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization: ZGC; Methodology: SH, ZGC; Formal analysis: PT, SH, ZGC; Investigation: HL; Writing—Original draft: PT, ZGC, SH; Writing—Review & editing: PT, ZGC, SH, HL. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Zhenguang G. Cai or Hao Lin.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests

There is no conflict of interest or competing interest to disclose.

Ethics approval

The research was ethically approved by an institutional board at The Chinese University of Hong Kong and by an institutional board at the Shanghai International Studies University.

Consent to participate

All participants signed a written consent form before taking part in the experiment.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

Table 6 Results from the comprehensive generalized additive model (with both linear and smooth terms) assessing accuracy and reaction time (RT) data for both deaf and hearing participants
Full size table
Table 7 Results from separate generalized additive models (with both linear and smooth terms) for accuracy of deaf and hearing participants
Full size table
Table 8 Results from separate generalized additive models (with both linear and smooth terms) for reaction time (RT) of deaf and hearing participants
Full size table
Fig. 8
figure 8

Scatterplot matrix for all lexical variables

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Thierfelder, P., Cai, Z.G., Huang, S. et al. The Chinese lexicon of deaf readers: A database of character decisions and a comparison between deaf and hearing readers. Behav Res (2023). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02305-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02305-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation