Abstract
Based on a model which holds that open-field behavior is due in large part to an interaction between social separation and the threat of predation, seven experiments were conducted to examine the relationship between tonic immobility and open-field activity in chickens. The results showed that placement in an open field prior to testing for tonic immobility reliably enhanced the duration of immobility. Similarly, procedures that have been shown to modify the length of the immobility episode had a comparable effect on the timing of activity onset in an open field. Since tonic immobility has been independently implicated as a putative predator defense, the correspondence between open-field behavior and tonic immobility was taken as indirect support for the hypothesis that open-field testing contains overtones of predation.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abel, E. L. Habituation as a factor in early handling.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,74, 219–221.
Anderson, D. C., Crowell, C., Koehn, D., &Lupo, J. V. Different intensities of unsignalled inescapable shock treatments as determinants of non-shock-motivated open field behavior: A resolution of disparate results.Physiology & Behavior, 1976,17, 391–394.
Andrew, B. J. Fear responses inEmberiza Spp.British Journal of Animal Behaviour, 1956,4, 125–132.
Archer, J. Tests for emotionality in rats and mice. A review.Animal Behaviour, 1973,21, 205–235.
Armstrong, E. A. The wren. London: Collins, 1955.
Armstrong, E. A. Bird display and behaviour. New York: Dover, 1965.
Askew, H. R., Musimeci, M., Sloane, L., &Stephan, L. Effects of prey movement and background on predatory behavior of chameleons.Psychonomic Science, 1970,20, 171.
Baron, A. Suppression of exploratory behavior by aversive stimulation.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1964,57, 299–301.
Bindra, D., &Palfai, T. Nature of positive and negative incentive-motivational effects on general activity.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1967,63, 288–297.
Blanchard, R. J., &Blanchard, D. C. Crouching as an index of fear.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,67, 370–375.
Blanchard, R. J., &Blanchard, D. C. Defensive reactions in the albino rat.Learning and Motivation, 1971,2, 351–362.
Blanchard, R. J., Mast, M., &Blanchard, D. C. Stimulus control of defensive reactions in the albino rat.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1975,88, 81–88.
Braud, W. G., &Ginsburg, H. J. Effect of administration of adrenalin on immobility reaction in domestic fowl.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973,83, 124–127.
Bronstein, P. M., &Hirsch, S. M. Ontogeny of defensive reactions in Norway rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1976,90, 620–629.
Bruckner, G. H. Untersuchungen zur Tiersoziologie, inbesondre der Auflosung der Familie.Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 1933,128, 1–120.
Burghardt, G. M. Stimulus control of the prey attack response in naive garter snakes.Psychonomic Science, 1966,4, 37–38.
Busnel, R. G. Aspects of animal acoustic signals. In R. G. Busnel (Ed.),Acoustic behavior of animals. New York: Elsevier, 1963.
Collias, N. E. The development of social behavior in birds.Auk, 1952,69, 127–159.
Collias, N. E., &Collias, E. C. Some mechanisms of family interaction in ducks.Auk, 1956,73, 378–400.
Cornwell, G. W., &Bartonex, J. C. Pseudo-sleeping attitude of the canvasback.Condor, 1963,65, 444–446.
Cott, H. B. Adaptive coloration in animals. New York: Oxford University Press, 1940.
Curio, E. The ethology of predation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1976.
Curti, M. W. Native fear responses of white rats in the presence of cats.Psychological Monographs, 1935,46, 78–98.
Doty, B. A., &Doty, L. A. Effects of handling at various ages on later open-field behavior.Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1967,21, 463–470.
Drummond, H. M. Stimulus control of amphibious predation in the northern water snake (Nerodia s. sipedon).Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 1979,50, 18–44.
Edson, P. H., &Gallup, G. G., Jr. Tonic immobility as a fear response in lizards (Anolis carolinensis).Psychonomic Science, 1972,26, 27–28.
Faure, J. M. Etude des liaisons entre comportement en open-field et émotivité chez le jeune poussin.Annales de Génétique et de Sélection Animate, 1975,7, 197–204.
Fox, M. W. Ontogeny of prey-killing behavior in Canidae.Behaviour, 1969,35, 259–272.
Gagliardi, G. J., Gallup, G. G., Jr., &Boren, J. L. Effect of different pupil to eye size ratios on tonic immobility in chickens.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1976,8, 58–60.
Gallup, G. G., Jr. Simulated predation and tonic immobility inAnolis carolinensis.Copeia, 1973, 623–624.
Gallup, G. G., Jr. Animal hypnosis: Factual status of a fictional concept.Psychological Bulletin, 1974,81, 836–853.
Gallup, G. G., Jr. Tonic immobility: The role of fear and predation.Psychological Record, 1977,27, 41–61.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Creekmore, H. S., &Hill, W. E., III. Shock-enhanced immobility reactions in chickens: Support for the fear hypothesis.Psychological Record, 1970,20, 243–245.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Cummings, W. H., &Nash, R. F. The experimenter as an independent variable in studies of animal hypnosis in chickens (Gallus gallus). Animal Behaviour, 1972,20, 166–169.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Ledbetter, D. H., &Maser, J. D. Strain differences among chickens in tonic immobility: Evidence for an emotionality component.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1976,90, 1075–1081.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Nash, R. F., &Brown, C. W. The effects of a tranquilizer on the immobility reaction in chickens: Additional support for the fear hypothesis.Psychonomic Science, 1971,23, 127–128.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Nash, R. F., Donegan, N. H., &McClure, M. K. The immobility response: A predator-induced reaction in chickens.Psychological Record, 1971,21, 513–519.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Nash, R. F., &Ellison, A. L., Jr. Tonic immobility as a reaction to predation: Artificial eyes as a fear stimulus for chickens.Psychonomic Science, 1971,23, 79–80.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Nash, R. F., Potter, R. J., &Donegan, N. H. Effects of varying conditions of fear on immobility reactions in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus).Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970,73, 442–445.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Nash, R. F., &Wagner, A. M. The tonic immobility reaction in chickens: Response characteristics and methodology.Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation, 1971,3, 237–239.
Gallup, G. G., Jr.,Rosen, T. S., &Brown, C. W. Effect of conditioned fear on tonic immobility in domestic chickens.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972,78, 22–25.
Gallup, G. G., Jr., &Suarez, S. D. An ethological analysis of open-field behaviour in chickens.Animal Behaviour, 1980,28, 368–378.
Gilman, T. T., Marcuse, F. L., &Moore, A. U. Animal hypnosis: A study in the induction of tonic immobility in chickens.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1950,43, 99–111.
Ginsburg, H. J., Braud, W. G., &Taylor, R. D. Inhibition of distress vocalizations in the open field as a function of heightened fear or arousal in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus).Animal Behaviour, 1974,22, 745–749.
Goldman, P. S. Conditioned emotionality in the rat as a function of stress in infancy.Animal Behaviour, 1965,13, 434–442.
Griffith, C. R. The instinctive behavior of white rats in the presence of cats.Psychobiology, 1920,2, 19–28.
Hediger, H. Studies on the psychology and behavior of captive animals in zoos and circuses. London: Butterworth, 1955.
Herzog, H. A., Jr., &Burghardt, G. M. Prey movement and predatory behavior of juvenile western yellow-bellied racers,Coluber constrictor mormon.Herpetologica, 1974,30, 285–289.
Hoagland, H. The mechanism of tonic immobility (“animal hypnosis”).Journal of General Psychology, 1928,1, 426–447.
Hofer, M. A. Cardiac and respiratory function during sudden prolonged immobility in wild rodents.Psychosomatic Medicine, 1970,32, 633–647.
Jones, R. B. Repeated exposure of the domestic chick to a novel environment: Effects on behavioral responses.Behavioral Processes, 1977,2, 163–173.
Kaufman, D. W. Differential predation on active and inactive prey by owls.Auk, 1974,91, 172–173.
King, J. A. Social relations of the domestic guinea pig living under semi-natural conditions.Ecology, 1956,37, 221–228.
Klemm, W. R. Identity of sensory and motor systems that are critical to the immobility reflex (“animal hypnosis”).Psychological Record, 1977,27, 145–159.
Kruijt, J. P. Ontogeny of social behavior in Burmese Red Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus) bonnaterre.Behaviour Supplement XII. Leiden: Brill, 1964.
Leopold, A. S. The nature of heritable wildness in turkeys.Condor, 1944,46, 133–147.
Levine, S., Madden, J., IV,Conner, R. L., Moskal, J. R., &Anderson, D. C. Physiological and behavioral effects of prior aversive stimulation (pre-shock) in the rat.Physiology & Behavior, 1973,10, 467–471.
MacDonald, L. Attack latency ofConstrictor constrictor as a function of prey activity.Herpetologica, 1973,29, 45–48.
Mikulka, P., Kendall, P., Constantine, J., &Porterfield, L. The effect of Pavlovian CS+ and CS− on exploratory behavior.Psychonomic Science, 1972,27, 308–310.
Miller, J. D., &Murray, F. S. Guinea pig’s immobility response to sound: Threshold and habituation.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1966,61, 227–233.
Montevecchi, W. A., Gallup, G. G., Jr., &Dunlap, W. P. The peep vocalization in group reared chicks (Gallus domesticus): Its relation to fear.Animal Behaviour, 1973,21, 116–123.
Murai, N. Effects of experience upon the open field behavior in rats: 1. A study of the differentiation of active and passive avoidance responses.Tohoku Psychologica Folia, 1968,27, 50–56.
Murphy, L. B. The practical problems of recognizing and measuring fear and exploration in the domestic fowl.Animal Behaviour, 1978,26, 422–431.
Murphy, L. B., &Wood-Gush, D. G. M. The interpretation of the behaviour of domestic fowl in strange environments.Biology of Behaviour, 1978,3, 39–61.
Nash, R. F., &Gallup, G. G., Jr. Habituation and tonic immobility in domestic chickens.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1976,90, 870–876.
Nash, R. F., Gallup, G. G., Jr., &McClure, M. K. The immobility reaction in leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) as a function of noise-induced fear.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 155–156.
Noble, G. K. The biology of the amphibia. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1931.
O’Brien, T. J., &Dunlap, W. P. Tonic immobility in the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus, Rathbun): Its relation to threat of predation.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1975,89, 86–94.
Palmer, W. Instinctive stillness in birds.Auk, 1909,26, 23–36.
Pinel, J. P., Corcoran, M. E., &Malsbury, C. W. Incubation effects in rats: Decline of foot-shock-produced activation.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,77, 271–276.
Price, E. Differential reactivity of wild and semi-domestic deer-mice (Peromyscus maniculatus).Animal Behaviour, 1970,18, 747–752.
Ratner, S. C. Comparative aspects of hypnosis. In J. E. Gordon (Ed.),Handbook of clinical and experimental hypnosis. New York: Macmillan, 1967.
Sargeant, A. B., &Eberhardt, L. E. Death feigning by ducks in response to predation by red foxes (Vulpes fulva).American Midland Naturalist, 1975,94, 108–119.
Satinder, K. P. Reactions of selectively bred strains of rats to a cat.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1976,4, 172–176.
Sisk, M. E. Notes on the feeding of a captive snake,Farancia abacura reinwardti.Herpetologica, 1963,19, 221–222.
Sluckin, W. Imprinting and early learning. Chicago: Aldine, 1965.
Smith, G. C., & Watson, D. Selection patterns of corn snake,Elaphe guttata, of different phenotypes of the house mouse,Mus musculus.Copeia, 1972, 529–532.
Stoddard, H. L. The bobwhite quail: Its habits, preservation and increase. New York: Scribner’s, 1936.
Stokes, A. W. Behavior of the bobwhite,Colinus virginianus.Auk, 1967,84, 1–33.
Suarez, S. D., &Gallup, G. G., Jr. Tonic immobility as a response to rape in humans: A theoretical note.Psychological Record, 1979,29, 315–320.
Thompson, R. K. R., Foltin, R. W., Boylan, R. J., Sweet, A., Graves, C. A., &Lowitz, C. E. Tonic immobility in Japanese quail can reduce the probability of sustained attack by cats.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1981,9, 145–149.
Thompson, R. W., Scuderi, R., &Boren, J. The effect of epinephrine on tonic immobility (animal hypnosis) in chickens.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,9, 409–410.
Tortora, D. F., &Borschelt, P. L. The effect of escape responses on immobility in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).Psychonomic Science, 1972,27, 129–130.
Walsh, R. N., &Cummins, R. A. The open-field test: A critical review.Psychological Bulletin, 1976,83, 482–504.
Watson, F. M. C., Henry, J. P., &Haltmeyer, G. C. Effects of early experience on emotional and social reactivity in CBA mice.Physiology & Behavior, 1974,13, 9–14.
White, C. M., &Weeden, R. B. Hunting methods of gyrfalcons and behavior of their prey (ptarmigan).Condor, 1966,68, 517–519.
Williamson, K. The pseudo-sleeping attitude of the oyster-catcher.British Birds, 1950,43, 1–4.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This research was partially supported by a National Science Foundation predoctoral fellowship held by the first author.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Suarez, S.D., Gallup, G.G. Predatory overtones of open-field testing in chickens. Animal Learning & Behavior 9, 153–163 (1981). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197812
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197812