Eastern Romance borrowings in Ukrainian dialects (Indo-European retrospective)

The article deals with the original Eastern Romance vocabulary recorded in the dialects of the Ukrainian language and its proto-forms, as well as examines the formation of the semantics of Eastern Romance borrowings from the Proto-Indo- European period to the present. To achieve the goal, the author compiles a corpus of original Romance words presented in Ukrainian dialects, determines their Indo- European, Italic and Latin proto-forms, corrects those of them indicated in the etymological literature, and establishes regularities of semantic transformations of various thematic groups on the axis of Proto-Indo-European language – Proto- Italic – Latin – ancient and modern Eastern Romance languages and dialects – Ukrainian dialects. The study proves that the Proto-Indo-European origins of Eastern Romance dialectisms, which had the meanings “action” and “state”, as a result of natural changes in the semantic structure, acquired the meanings of objects of practical human activity and became the basis for naming the animal and plant world of the Carpathian region, tools and the results of the work of the ancient population of the West of Ukraine.


Introduction
In the last few decades, Ukrainian etymological science has paid considerable attention to dialectological issues, successfully combining the conceptual apparatus of dialectology and the reconstruction of proto-lingual states. Due to this, numerous cases of lexical borrowings of the languages bordering on peripheral dialects of Ukraine fell into its circle of interests. Studies of ways and means of assimilation of Eastern Romance words by Ukrainian dialects stand out against this background. Scientific findings in this field have become diagnostically valuable in determining migration flows and contacts of Proto-Slavs and ancient Slavs, for the reconstruction of the Slavic proto-lingual area.
Etymologists consider the main practical tasks in the field of Romance loanwords in the Ukrainian language to be an in-depth search for the origins of Romanisms, their etymological analysis, a comprehensive study of ways of adapting loanwords in all possible aspects, establishing the regularities of their semantic transformations on the axis of Proto-Indo-European language -Proto-Italic language -Latinmodern Eastern Romance languages and dialects -Ukrainian dialects.

The subject of the paper
The object of the research is the original Eastern Romance vocabulary recorded in the dialects of the Ukrainian language and its proto-forms.

The aim of the article
The purpose of the article is to study the formation of the semantics of Eastern Romanisms from Proto-Indo-European times to the present. To achieve the goal, the author plans to compile a corpus of specific Romance vocabulary presented in Ukrainian dialects, to determine their Indo-European, Italian and Latin proto-forms, if necessary correcting those of them that are presented in the etymological literature, as well as to establish the types of semantic transformations of Romanisms on the axis of Proto-Indo-European language -Proto-Italic language -Latin languageancient and modern Eastern Romance languages and dialects -Ukrainian dialects.

Research background
The multifaceted problem of the interaction of Ukrainian and Eastern Romance languages, lexical borrowings, their chronology and protolingual sources, as well as semantic and formal transformations of protostems remain relevant even in our time. Until the beginning of the 21st century, Ukrainian dialectological romance philology accumulated a significant amount of specific material in the context of etymological research, which increasingly requires deepening of etymological research.
Researchers of Eastern Romance loanwords did not always manage to cross the "Latin border" of reconstruction. In his works on this issue, E. Vrabie in particular based on the etymological dictionaries of the Ukrainian language, made a convincing attempt to subject the Romanian and Moldavian elements inherent in the Ukrainian language to a deeper interpretation (Vrabie, 1991;Rudnyc'kyj, 1962Rudnyc'kyj, -1982. Here, as well as in (Vrabie, 1967), a large dialect layer of words is reconstructed in compliance with the diachronic depth of the basic vocabulary and fixed mainly in Latin as the source language.
A considerable number of Romanian and Moldavian loanwords are collected in the Etymological Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language: here the ways of their penetration into Ukrainian dialects are explained, the intermediary languages are indicated, and the Latin source of each of the registered words is highlighted (Melnychuk, 1982(Melnychuk, -2012Lukinova, 2013).
The etymology of both entire lexical-semantic microsystems and individual dialectisms attracts the attention of researchers. While studying the oronyms of the Ukrainian Carpathians, Yu. O. Karpenko was able to distinguish in this lexical array both the Proto-Slavic layer and the Romance contribution to the onymy of the western region (Karpenko, 1999). Versions about the Romanian borrowing of the dialectal words къча, жбир, грун, грехит, глижа, клечец, etc. he refutes it by appealing not only to Proto-Slavic and Latin, but also to Proto-Indo-European stems.
The level of etymological research of N. І. Pashkova is deepening more often. The extensive dialectological, lexicographic, and etymological material of the comparativehistorical study of the dialect element кошара, the involvement of Indo-European proto-forms allowed her to shed light on the origins of this Carpathianism (Pashkova, 2020).
Etymological dictionaries of the Romanian language significantly enrich our understanding of the history of the emergence of Romanisms. The Etymological Dictionary of the Romanian Language (Ciorănescu, 2001), contains serious substantiations of Latin words as the source of most of the Eastern Romance lexicon and a large list of Slavisms. The more ancient origins of Romanianisms in the Ukrainian language can be revealed by turning to the Etymological Dictionary of the Romanian Language by M. Vinereanu (Vinereanu, 2008), because the author recognizes Indo-European antiquity as the oldest level of origin of words.
To specify the successive semantic changes of Indo-European proto-forms, it is worth referring to M. de Vaan's Etymological Dictionary of the Latin Language: by comparing Romance lexemes, the researcher recreates the Proto-Italic etymon as a significant stage of development from the Proto-Indo-European base to modern languages (Vaan, 2008). This explanatory impulse is a strong point of the proposed reconstruction.
At the time, the need for deepening reconstructions of the Romanian-Moldavian stratum, etymologizing it to the Indo-European and even Proto-Indo-European level is felt more and more.

Methodology
The analysis of the lexical microsystem of Eastern Romance dialectisms was carried out using a complex methodology, which ensured the identification of diachronic and synchronic characteristics essential for their retrospective study. The diachronic approach involved the analysis of the semantic history of proto-lingual stems and made it possible to trace the regularities of their evolution. The main method of research is comparative-historical, with the help of which the meaning dynamics of protostems are traced and the regularities of the semantic formation of of Romanisms are established on the axis of Proto-Indo-European language -Proto-Italic language -Latin languagemodern Eastern Romance languages and dialects -Ukrainian dialects. Collection of factual material from dictionaries was conducted by the continuous sampling method.
The method of semantic parallels contributed to revealing the regularity of semantic transformations of Indo-European proto-stems in the formation of dialectisms of Eastern Romance origin.

Results and Discussion
The diachronic study of Romanisms in the composition of Ukrainian dialects aims to reconstruct their morphological and semantic state not only in the Latin, but also in the Proto-Italic and Proto-Indo-European periods. At this point, the research is faced with the problem of the peculiarities of the semantics of proto-stems. Proto-forms are presented as nouns or as verb stems in etymological dictionaries. Those the proto-stems with process-event semantics can be considered earlier, because in the human mind, the system of verbal meanings qualifies as a decisive factor in the formation of the linguistic picture of the world. Through action, a person enters an active relationship with reality, because action is a coordination centre that regulates the relationship between a person and the world (Kubryakova, 1992), so the verb shows the greatest semantic-derivative ability.
The next stage of the existence of the proto-form is the formation of verb nouns, the meanings of which are motivated by the specifics of the semantics of the verb.
Tracing the directions of the semantic derivation of Romanisms from the Indo-European protolanguage to our time will be carried out according to thematic groups.
Let us consider the Eastern Romance borrowings, which reflect the eternal occupation of Ukrainians in the Western and south-western regionsanimal husbandry. These are primarily zoonyms.
The names of sheeps by the color recorded in the Carpathians отіша, as well as вотіша, вотішер are explained as the result of borrowing from the Moldavian or Romanian languages: oacheş(ă) and dialect variants ṷótişă, oat'eşă, oakishî "sheep with black near the eyes" are derived from Romanian oachiu "eye" and earlier from Latin oculus. We find their origins in the Proto-Italic *ok(e)lo-, Proto-Indo-European root *okw-"to see". The basis of the nomination of sheep of this breed is a bright signblack colour around the eyes (Melnychuk, 2003, 4, р. 233, Pokorny, I, р. 4;Vinereanu, р. 591;Vaan, р. 425).
The Hutsul dialectism буча "black goat with a white face", бучє "the name of a sheep", as well as бучка "a black sheep with a white face", бучко "the name of a ram" underwent significant semantic changes, because in the Romanian language, where it came from, bucă means "cheek", as in Latin bucca "swollen, filled cheek", a continuation of Proto-Italic *bukka-. The Indo-European proto-root of this name can be considered *bʰeHw-"to swell" (Melnychuk, 1982, 1, р. 313;Pokorny, 2, р. 114;Vinereanu, р. 160;Vaan, р. 76). The verb meaning of the original proto-form was transformed into the name of a body part. It is noted that the zoonym is based on a distinctive feature of the animal's appearance.
Age is defined here as the basis for naming in the Pre-Italic period. In the Romanian and Moldavian languages, we observe a shift of meaning to another kind of animal.
The agricultural work of the ancestors of South-Western Ukrainians is reflected in the name ґлюґа "heap of reed sheaves" borrowed from the Moldavian language. Moldavian глугэ, as well as Romanian glúgă, "hood; shock" comes from the Latin cuculla "hood" and, according to etymologists, is a loan word from the Illyrian or Gaulish language. It is considered a reduplication of the Proto-Indo-European stem (s)keu̯ ǝ : (s)kū-"to cover, roll up, bend", which on the Romance base was transformed into a name due to the similarity of the form (to covercoveringheaddresscone-shaped pile) (Melnychuk,1,р. 531;Pokorny,2,р. 546;Vinereanu,. Most of the Romanian and Moldavian borrowings relate to animal husbandry and its products. A direct borrowing from Romanian is шкам "first-class wool". Romanian scámă "wool or cotton thread, fibre, carp" continues Latin squama "scale", motivated by Proto-Indo-European *(s)kewH-"to cover" (Melnychuk,4,р. 426;Vaan,Pokorny,2,р. 546). Therefore, the development of this Romanianism can be represented by a scheme: surface actioncoating (scale)wool, fiberfirst-class wool. A similar way of formation is demonstrated by the name of the lamb's wool of the autumn shearing тушира (from Romanian tuşiră, tuşină "wool from shorn sheep"), which continues Folk-Latin *tonsionare and Latin tondere "to cut", Proto-Italic *tond-eje and Proto-Indo-European *tond-eіe "to cut" (Melnychuk, 2006, 5, р. 689;Vaan, p. 622).
We will also find out the semantic dynamics of proto-forms for instrumental names. For example, the south-western lexeme рашка "part of a spinning wheel, a frame with teeth in which the spool is turned and through which the spun thread is wound onto the spool", is related to Romanian răşchiá "to wind on a reel", răşchitór "reel" and Folk Latin *rasclare "to scrape". We consider its proto-form to be Proto-Indo-European *rēd-2: rōd-: rǝd-"to scratch" (Melnychuk, 2006, 5, р. 35;Pokorny, 2, р. 369). The instrumental name is motivated by the verbal designation of the action that the device should perform when spinning.
Let us trace the origin of the names of clothes inherent in the dialects that bordered on the Eastern Romance languages. Regarding the Hutsul name петек (as well as петак, петок) "a type of half-captan", there is an opinion that they are borrowed from the Romanian or Moldavian languages, where pétec "patch, piece, rag" is derived from the Middle Latin pettacium "a piece of cloth", which in Latin means "piece of parchment or cloth". Although there are no deeper studies of pettacium, we assume its origin from Proto-Italic *pet-e/o, which continues Proto-Indo-European *pt-(e)i-"to fly" (by analogy with the formation of Ukrainian латка from Proto-Slavic *lata "patch", *latati "to fly, to scatter, to dangle" (Melnychuk, 2003, 4, р. 361;Trubachev, 1987, 14, р. 47-48;Vaan, p. 463-464;Pokorny, 1, р. 19).
Landscape names are essential for farming.
The landscape name аршиця "steep mountain, sunny side of the mountain" is defined as borrowing from Eastern Romance languages: Moldavian аршицэ "heat", Romanian árşíţa "also; pasture on a hill, in a forest on the sunny side" come from the Folk-Latin *арсісіа "burning" (Latin ardeo "burning", арсі "I burned"). Its origins can be seen in Proto-Italic *ās-ē "to be dry", Proto-Indo-European *h2eh-"also ", ai-dh-, i-dh-, i-n-dh-"to burn" (Melnychuk, 1982, 1, р. 91;Vaan, p. 53;Pokorny, 2, р. 5). The modern meaning has gone through the stages of formation from the name of an action, a state, a sign, and a place with this sign.

Conclusions
As a result of the study of Eastern Romance loanwords in the dialects of Western Ukraine, Ukrainian dialectology and etymology faced the task of establishing the Indo-European origins of Romanian and Moldavian words learned in the Ukrainian language.
In the south-western dialectal area of Ukraine (Hutsul, Bukovyna, Boyki, Lemki dialects), these borrowings (285 units) are differentiated by thematic groups: names of animals, birds, plants, products and work tools, household items, landscape names and definitions of human social roles.
Each group in diachrony shows specific semantic and word-forming features. Thus, the names of animals were formed from Proto-Indo-European names of actions or states, which were transformed into the names of the performer of the specified action or the bearer of a certain characteristic. In the Latin period, definitions were formed, which in Romanian and Moldavian languages ended as a nounthe name of an animal based on a special external feature. On the Ukrainian basis, such Romanisms undergo a narrowing of meaning.
Proto-lingual onomatopoiea cause the formation of bird names, which in Ukrainian dialects undergo a shift in meanings. The origin of phytonyms is based on Proto-Indo-European names of forms of plants (stem, root, horn, pile, etc.), which were also mostly formed in Latin and are de-verbatives in Indo-European retrospective.
The basis of the formation of the vocabulary of animal husbandry products, as well as the names of tools and household items, are the actions performed during their production (cutting, thickening, scraping, catching, taking, covering, etc.). Landscape names developed on the base of the verbal meanings of the original Indo-European proto-stems and went through a long path of transformation: "action" ("state") -"sign (form)" -"name of the area".
Thus, Romance borrowings in Ukrainian dialects developed from Indo-European proto-stems with the semantics of action, and finally acquired substantive meanings in the Proto-Italic and Latin eras. Romanian and Moldavian lexemes inherited Latin meanings with certain modifications, and in dialects of the Ukrainian language their adaptation took place in the direction of semantic concretization.
Knowledge of the regularities of the semantic development of loanwords on the axis Proto-Indo-European language -Proto-Italic language -Latin language -Eastern Romance languages -Ukrainian dialectisms can help in the reconstruction of Romanisms in other Slavic languages, as well as in reproducing the picture of Romance-Slavic language contacts in the Carpathian region.