The Contribution of Ecosystem Services in Developing Effective and Sustainable Management Practices in Marine Protected Areas. The Case Study of “Isola dell’Asinara”

Ecosystem Services (ESs) are assuming a constantly increasing importance in management practices due to their key role in ensuring a sustainable future to fauna and flora on Earth. In addition, ES degradation and quality loss jeopardize current human activities. For this reason, it is essential to develop methodologies and practices able to efficiently assess environmental and socio-economic impacts in terms of ES deterioration, especially within protected areas. Norms and regulations have to be able to identify habitat and species categories to be preserved, and to determine the cost of their destruction and decline, according to a holistic vision, which includes social and economic impacts, besides the environmental ones. The paper illustrates the case study of the “Isola dell’Asinara” Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Sardinia, where an experimental methodology was developed with the aim to draw new regulations that integrate conservation measures of Natura 2000 sites included in its territory, provisions determined by the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) protocol and the Standardized Actions for Effective Management of MPAs (ISEA) project. Subsequently, in order to assess the status of ESs and impacts on ESs located within the MPA territory, an ecosystem-based approach was implemented and applied to the actions defined for the new regulation proposal. Results show that regulations are in this way valuably enriched by environmental aspects of the MPA that would otherwise be overlooked.


Introduction
Commitment to biodiversity preservation has been increasing dramatically since the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. Thanks to international cooperation and stronger awareness of the close relationship between human needs and ESs, attention to ES preservation has grown exponentially over the years. Indeed, a constantly increasing number of scientific studies underline the fundamental role of marine and coastal ecosystems in providing important social and economic advantages [1][2][3][4], including food provisioning, nutrient cycling, biodiversity, climate regulation, cultural values, recreation and amenities [5] and the growing human dependence on marine ecosystems and their services [6].

1.
To improve conservation and promotion of marine and costal zones and to direct public accessibility to natural sites.

2.
To improve the efficiency of planning and public governance of marine and coastal areas in the area of cooperation.

3.
To raise awareness on the economic value of the natural capital and to promote green and blue growth [44].     identified by the Natura 2000 network for SPAs, SACs and SCIs are in force in the MPAs. In addition, the ICZM protocol and the ISEA project are adopted by the MPAs; therefore, the provisions they determine are in force in the MPAs as well. The PS aims at integrating these legislative measures in a single document, coherently with a holistic territory vision able to ensure favorable conservation status of habitats, thus preserving biodiversity.
Within the framework of the study carried out by the DICAAR research group, following the provisions provided by the European Directives 2014/89/EU and 2008/56/EC mentioned above, this paper focuses on the definition of a pioneering methodology to define "ecosystemic objectives", in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of Agenda 2030, to enrich the traditional assessment for sustainability provided by the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). In this way, ecological and socio-economic disciplines are integrated to provide decision-makers with a synthesis of complex information to inform strategies definition. The aim is to provide a scientific framework, which integrates ecosystem services in environmental assessment procedures, in order to guide managers and legislators in making sound decisions.
For the purpose of this paper, only data concerning the MPA of "Isola dell'Asinara" are considered. The MPA was established in 2002 by a decree of the MATTM and its current regulations were approved by the MATTM through the decree of the 30th of July 2009 [45]. Its area covers approximately 108 km 2 in the sea and 79.64 km 2 in the mainland entirely comprised within the boundaries of the Municipality of Porto Torres, in the Province of Sassari [46]. The MPA territory overlaps with the following Natura 2000 sites: The SPA "ITB010001 Isola Asinara", the SPA "ITB013011 Isola Piana di Porto Torres" and the SAC "ITB010082 Isola dell'Asinara", as shown in Figure 2 [47]. It is characterized by an extensive coverage of various high-quality assets of natural capital as shown in Figure 3.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 1108 5 of 33 Figures 1 and 2 show that SPAs, SACs and SCIs are located within the boundaries of the MPAs of "Tavolara-Punta Coda Cavallo" and "Isola dell'Asinara". Consequently, conservation measures identified by the Natura 2000 network for SPAs, SACs and SCIs are in force in the MPAs. In addition, the ICZM protocol and the ISEA project are adopted by the MPAs; therefore, the provisions they determine are in force in the MPAs as well. The PS aims at integrating these legislative measures in a single document, coherently with a holistic territory vision able to ensure favorable conservation status of habitats, thus preserving biodiversity.
Within the framework of the study carried out by the DICAAR research group, following the provisions provided by the European Directives 2014/89/EU and 2008/56/EC mentioned above, this paper focuses on the definition of a pioneering methodology to define "ecosystemic objectives", in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of Agenda 2030, to enrich the traditional assessment for sustainability provided by the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). In this way, ecological and socio-economic disciplines are integrated to provide decision-makers with a synthesis of complex information to inform strategies definition. The aim is to provide a scientific framework, which integrates ecosystem services in environmental assessment procedures, in order to guide managers and legislators in making sound decisions.
For the purpose of this paper, only data concerning the MPA of "Isola dell'Asinara" are considered. The MPA was established in 2002 by a decree of the MATTM and its current regulations were approved by the MATTM through the decree of the 30th of July 2009 [45]. Its area covers approximately 108 km 2 in the sea and 79.64 km 2 in the mainland entirely comprised within the boundaries of the Municipality of Porto Torres, in the Province of Sassari [46]. The MPA territory overlaps with the following Natura 2000 sites: The SPA "ITB010001 Isola Asinara", the SPA "ITB013011 Isola Piana di Porto Torres" and the SAC "ITB010082 Isola dell'Asinara", as shown in Figure 2 [47]. It is characterized by an extensive coverage of various high-quality assets of natural capital as shown in Figure 3.

Methodology
The approach adopted for the definition of the new MPA regulation proposal is based on the outline of the PS. It draws inspiration from the Strategical Environmental Assessment (SEA), with particular reference to articles 1 and 6 of Directive 2001/42/CE, which concern decisional processes and public participation. In particular, the PS recalls the principle that the SEA is not a simple assessment of environmental impacts related to a decision, but it plays a strategic role in all the stages of the whole decisional process [49,50]. In this respect, the SEA is an effective political instrument for territorial governance, able to define strategical actions through the integration of diverse approaches and tools [49,[51][52][53][54][55].
The PS applies these concepts with the aim of enhancing decisional processes and management practices. In particular, it promotes public participation in a holistic vision pointing at going beyond the fragmentation and sectorization that characterize the planning and management tools in force. It is structured into the sections illustrated in Figure 4.  The first level lists the sustainability-oriented objectives-formulated on the basis of the SWOT analysis-which depict the environmental status of the area through the analysis of each environmental component that characterizes the area [60]. The second level encompasses the objectives derived from the policy consistency and coherence assessment, which analyzes plans and programs in force at the regional, provincial and local level. The aim of this analysis is to identify the potential effects of plans and programs within the MPA territory and their interaction with the regulations. The third level enumerates specific objectives. They represent the regulation aims, as   The core of the PS is constituted by the Logical Framework (LF), since it organizes all the objectives and actions identified in the previous sections, and connects them in a cascade relationship. The LF is organized according to a matrix structure, largely adopted in the programs promoted by the EU and other international entities. The LF is inspired to the so-called "programming by objectives", according to which the definition of the activities strictly follows the objective identification [56][57][58]. The LF structure ensures the identification of "conceptual connections between sustainability-oriented objectives related to the spatial contexts at stake and the operational planning actions concerning the integration of conservation measures related to" Natura 2000 sites into the new regulation proposal [59]. It is organized into four levels, which express the relationships among the various objectives drawn from the diverse protection instruments analyzed during the process of regulation elaboration (see Figure 4) and the actions defined to pursue the objectives selected for the prospective regulations.
The first level lists the sustainability-oriented objectives-formulated on the basis of the SWOT analysis-which depict the environmental status of the area through the analysis of each environmental component that characterizes the area [60]. The second level encompasses the objectives derived from the policy consistency and coherence assessment, which analyzes plans and programs in force at the regional, provincial and local level. The aim of this analysis is to identify the potential effects of plans and programs within the MPA territory and their interaction with the regulations. The third level enumerates specific objectives. They represent the regulation aims, as their codification is based on the contents of normative and management tools in force within the MPA. This section is the core of the PS, due to its importance within the process of upgrading the regulations, and its subsequent implementation.
The last level of the LF is the operative one, since it identifies the actions that address regulation objectives. In order to draw an efficient new regulation proposal, actions are formulated considering the planning and management tools in force (specific objectives) and the results of the SWOT analysis. These actions are then compared with the legislative instruments in force, which are in this way integrated in the new regulation proposal.

The Construction of the Logical Framework
As illustrated in Figure 4, the first level of the LF is constituted by the sustainability-oriented objectives. These objectives result from the analysis of various environmental and socio-economic aspects that describe the analyzed area. The environmental components are identified on the basis of the list provided by the guidelines issued by the Sardinian Region adequately adapted to the MPA studied [61]. In particular, the following ten "environmental components" are examined:
Fishing and other production activities; 10. Mobility and marine and terrestrial accessibility.
Characteristics of each component are reported in a summary sheet, whose scheme is illustrated in Table 1. The sheet contains the essential information assessing the status of natural resources and the pressures of anthropic and economic factors, which can be relevant in the phase of implementation of the regulations. Contextually, a SWOT analysis is conducted to analyze each environmental component, considering data drawn from the context analysis, in order to finally define a set of sustainability-oriented objectives. Subsequently, these objectives are better focused thanks to the ten sustainability criteria identified by the EC [48]. Table 1. Summary sheet for the analysis of the environmental components.

Environmental Component K
The introduction qualitatively describes the environmental component K in the analyzed territorial context (i.e., air). The description is organized according to themes (i.e., air quality, meteorological conditions), which are in turn articulated in specific aspects (i.e., source of pollution, temperature, annual precipitation, etc.). The latter provide a quantitative analysis based on appropriate indicators.

Theme n
This section provides a brief qualitative description of the theme n, which refers to the environmental component K.

Specific aspect t
Brief description of the aspect through its distinguishing elements such as legislative and management tools, operational tools, thematic maps, infrastructure, etc.

Sustainability-oriented Objectives Environmental sustainability criteria
Ps_Ob_SA_n . . . . . . Table 2 shows the SWOT analysis conducted for the "air" component, in relation to the sustainability-oriented objective: "Increasing air quality by mitigating pollution impacts, in order to control negative effects caused by climate change". It highlights strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats related to the component "air". Subsequently the identified sustainability-oriented objective is compared to the appropriate environmental sustainability criteria, designated by the EC [42] (The ten sustainability criteria are the following: (i) Minimization of the use of non-renewable resources; (ii) use of renewable resources within limits of capacity for regeneration; (iii) environmentally sound use and management of hazardous/polluting substances and wastes; (iv) conservation and enhancement of the status of wildlife, habitats and landscapes; (v) maintenance and improvement of the quality of soils and water resources; (vi) maintenance and improvement of the quality of historic and cultural resources; (vi) maintenance and improvement of the local environmental quality; (viii) protection of the atmosphere (global warming); (ix) development of environmental awareness, education and training; (x) promotion of public participation in decisions involving sustainable development). In particular, the sustainability-oriented objective here identified is better focused by considering the environmental sustainability criteria numbers i, ii, iii, vii and viii. The second level of the LF is represented by the policy consistency and coherence objectives. The assessment of policy consistency and coherence considers all the plans and programs in force at any level in the Marine Protected Area by examining the economic, social and spatial aspects relevant to the analyzed context. All the objectives illustrated in each plan or program are analyzed, and those considered meaningful for the regulations are adopted, either identical to their original formulation or adequately rephrased in order to be specifically tailored to the context.
For example, the objectives identified in relation to the Regional Air Quality Plan are listed below: • To pursue general environmental enhancement, in relation to other zones and types of polluting substances; • to integrate environmental needs in sectorial policies (especially in the sectors of energy, industry and transportation) with the aim of ensuring sustainable socio-economic development; • to increase citizen awareness in order to promote environmentally friendly behavior; • to integrate authorizations and inspection and monitoring activities in order to best ensure the implementation of the planning and regulation actions.
The third level of the LF is constituted of the specific objectives drawn from the various regulatory regimes in force in the "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA, with the aim of grouping them into a single regulatory framework. In correspondence with each objective, one or more actions are identified in order to guarantee the implementation of the objectives of the new regulation proposal. Simultaneously, actions pursue the aim of eliminating-or at least reducing-pressures exerted on natural resources by anthropic factors. In Tables 3 and 4 excerpts of the LF referring to the "air" component are reported. Table 3. LF excerpt referring to the "air" component.

Ps_Ob_SA_1
To enhance air quality by reducing pollution consequences, in order to mitigate the negative effects caused by climate change.

Ps_Ob_CE_4
To increase citizen awareness in order to promote environmentally friendly behaviors.

PS_Ob_REO_10
To organize information, promotional, awareness-raising and educational programs in order to guarantee sustainable fruition of the area and of its natural resources.

PS_Ob_REO_11
To promote the development of economic, social, cultural and tourist activities, which are compatible with conservation needs.

PS_Ob_REO_12
To promote programs and projects directed to the enhancement of marine ecosystems.

PS_Ob_REO_16
To ensure efficiency in the integrated management of the MPAs.

Ps_Ob_CE_5
To monitor natural phenomena and processes in order to support authorization and control procedures for a better implementation of the regulation actions.

PS_Ob_REO_18
To efficiently organize surveillance and assistance activities.

PS_Ob_REO_19
To promote scientific investigation programs.

PS_Ob_REO_20
To monitor the state of conservation of habitats and species.

Ps_Ob_CE_11
To integrate sustainable development policies, in order to reduce and prevent climate change and desertification impacts, by reducing the emission of climate-changing gas.

PS_Ob_REO_8
To efficiently organize recreational boat activities, mooring and docking, in compliance with the rules in force in each zone of the MPA and with the related Code of Conduct.

PS_Ob_REO_13
To reduce the main anthropic pressure factors.

PS_Ob_REO_16
To ensure efficiency in the integrated management of the MPAs.

Ps_Ob_CE_13
To increase knowledge, applied research and experimentation.

PS_Ob_REO_19
To promote scientific investigation programs.

Ps_Ob_CE_16
To reduce energy consumption, pollutant emissions and their impacts on the MPA territory, landscape and environmental value.

PS_Ob_REO_8
To efficiently organize recreational boat navigation, mooring and docking, in compliance with the rules in force in each zone of the MPA and with the related code of conduct.

PS_Ob_REO_13
To reduce the main anthropic pressure factors. Table 4. LF excerpt referring to the "air" component.

Ps_Ob_SA_1
To enhance air quality by reducing pollution consequences, in order to mitigate the negative effects caused by climate change.

Ps_Ob_REO_11, Ps_Ob_REO_13
Act_REO_3 Positioning of landing stages and buoys for the mooring of recreational boats in proximity of the Asinara island, in order to preserve Posidonia oceanica habitats.

Ps_Ob_REO_11, Ps_Ob_REO_13
Act_REO_4 Realization of artificial submerged barriers in order to constrict illegal trawling and to protect Posidonia oceanica meadows.

Ps_Ob_REO_12
Act_REO_6 To elaborate strategies and programs for the sustainable use of the MPA territory.

Regulation Objectives (Specific Objectives) Regulation Actions
Ps_Ob_REO_18 Act_REO_7 To adopt measures to facilitate the rescue of animals in distress or disoriented.

Ps_Ob_REO_10
Act_REO_8 To regulate photo shoots, filming and TV recordings.
Act_REO_11 To regulate activities allowed in each MPA zone.

Ps_Ob_REO_10, Ps_Ob_REO_13
Act_REO_12 To organize the tourism fruition system within the MPA.

Ps_Ob_REO_8
Act_REO_13 To control and limit ship and boat speed, in order to reduce underwater noise pollution and the risk of collision with cetaceans and turtles.

Ps_Ob_REO_20
Act_REO_14 To regulate monitoring activity.

Ps_Ob_REO_10, Ps_Ob_REO_13
Act_REO_18 To design and create submarine paths.

Ps_Ob_REO_19
Act_REO_20 To regulate technical and scientific research activity.

Ps_Ob_REO_13
Act_REO_21 To regulate bathing and swimming.

Ps_Ob_REO_8
Act_REO_24 To regulate recreational boat activities.

Ps_Ob_REO_8
Act_REO_25 To regulate docking of recreational boats.

Ps_Ob_REO_8
Act_REO_26 To regulate mooring of recreational boats.

Act_REO_31
To regulate chartering and leasing-even temporary-of recreational boats.

Ps_Ob_REO_11, Ps_Ob_REO_13
Act_REO_33 To define a set of indicators to asses carrying capacity of the MPA during the summer.

Ps_Ob_REO_11
Act_REO_34 To regulate authorizations for the development of socio-economic, tourist, social and cultural activities within the MPA.

Ps_Ob_REO_11
Act_REO_35 To adopt measures to preserve and protect the archaeologic, historic and cultural submarine heritage.
Ps_Ob_REO_8 Act_REO_41 To systematize the mooring infrastructure.

Act_REO_42
To launch monitoring campaigns to collect data on air quality.
Once the LF is completely filled, actions are compared with the regulations in force in order to evaluate their mutual coherence. In the event that the regulations in force in the MPAs do not include-or only partially include-a particular action, the regulations are updated either by adding new articles and subsections, or by modifying the existing ones. In order to best pursue this upgrading, regulations in force are also compared with regulations recently approved in other Italian MPAs, which are considered as best practices from which inspiration is taken. Table 5 shows the methodological model adopted to revise the regulations in force and is based on a double level of assessment. As a result of this double comparison, the new regulation proposal includes the aspects that characterize the sectorial norms that coexist in the area and those drawn from the regulations recently approved in other Italian MPAs. This integration aims at reinforcing biodiversity and environmental conservation, while guaranteeing efficient management of all the socio-economic activities in the area.

Definition of the PS Actions
While the objectives constitute the structural dimension of the PS, the actions, in turn, embody the operational aspect, by providing detailed indications and restrictions for the organization and management of the MPA. Following the criteria adopted for the identification of the regulation objectives, actions are codified considering the current restrictions imposed by the legislation in force. These are the MPA establishment decree, the regulations, the management plans of the Natura 2000 sites, and the provisions of the ICZM protocol and of the ISEA project. In addition, the results of the environmental analysis-in particular, the SWOT analysis-for each environmental component have been considered. In this way, actions result strictly linked to the regulation objectives and well connected to the strategic themes raised during their definition.
Once defined, actions were grouped by the categories that characterize the regulations in force as illustrated below: • Dispositions and regulatory norms; • monitoring; • promotional, awareness-raising, information and educational programs; • security and surveillance; • institutional coordination.
Attention has been focused on the dispositions and regulatory norms showing a strong link between the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of marine habitats and species. Table 6 reports the action set defined. Table 6. Regulation actions. Source: PS of "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA.

ACT_Reg_1
To adopt protection and conservation measures for habitats and species.

ACT_Reg_2
To regulate the management of stranded Posidonia oceanica.

ACT_Reg_3
Positioning of landing stages of buoys for the mooring of recreational boats in proximity of the Asinara island in order to preserve Posidonia oceanica habitats.

ACT_Reg_4
Realization of artificial submerged barriers in order to constrict illegal trawling and to protect Posidonia oceanica meadows.

ACT_Reg_5
To adopt measures to prevent coastal erosion.

ACT_Reg_6
To elaborate strategies and programs for the sustainable use of the MPA territory.

ACT_Reg_7
To adopt measures to facilitate the rescue of animals in distress or disoriented.

ACT_Reg_8
To regulate photo shoots, filming and TV recordings.

ACT_Reg_9
To launch recovery campaigns of abandoned waste and of the polluted areas of the MPA.

ACT_Reg_10
To launch eradication campaigns of all invasive or potential invasive alien plants.

ACT_Reg_11
To regulate activities allowed in each MPA zone.

ACT_Reg_12
To organize the tourism fruition system within the MPA.

ACT_Reg_13
To control and limit ship and boat speed, in order to reduce underwater noise pollution and the risk of collision with cetaceans and turtles.

ACT_Reg_14
To regulate monitoring activities.

ACT_Reg_15
To define identification criteria of fishing gear hallmarking.

ACT_Reg_16
To define a plan for the recovery of ghost fishing gear.

ACT_Reg_17
To adopt adequate measures to rehabilitate dunes and bars (protection, signage and maintenance).

ACT_Reg_18
To design and create submarine paths.

ACT_Reg_19
To launch seabed cleaning campaigns.

ACT_Reg_20
To regulate technical and scientific research activity.

ACT_Reg_21
To regulate bathing and swimming.

ACT_Reg_22
To regulate guided scuba diving tours.

ACT_Reg_23
To regulate sea-watching activities.

ACT_Reg_24
To regulate recreational boat activities.

ACT_Reg_25
To regulate docking of recreational boats.

ACT_Reg_26
To regulate mooring of recreational boats.

ACT_Reg_27
To regulate activities of public passenger transport services, sailboat charters and guided tours.

ACT_Reg_28
To regulate professional fishing activities.

ACT_Reg_29
To regulate activities of recreational fishing and ichthyic tourism.

ACT_Reg_30
To regulate whale-watching activities.

ACT_Reg_31
To regulate chartering and leasing, even temporary, of recreational boats.

ACT_Reg_32
To assess vulnerability and risk to accordingly adopt measures of prevention, mitigation and adaptation to face consequences of natural disasters and environmental emergences.

ACT_Reg_33
To define a set of indicators to asses carrying capacity of the MPA during the summer.

ACT_Reg_34
To regulate authorizations for the development of socio-economic, tourist, social and cultural activities within the MPA.

ACT_Reg_35
To adopt measures to preserve and protect the archaeologic, historic and cultural submarine heritage.

ACT_Reg_36
To adopt temporary protection measures in the areas and during the reproductive periods of vulnerable species that nest on cliffs or minor islands, such as ban on entry of boats, bathing prohibition and stop of recreational and commercial tourist activities.

ACT_Reg_37
To tighten controls on sea-water quality.

ACT_Reg_38
To establish rules and regulations concerning wastewater and hydrocarbons discharge into the sea.

ACT_Reg_39
To circumscribe areas at risk of landslide.

ACT_Reg_40
To define motor parameters of boats according to the Italian Legislative Decree No. 171/2005.

ACT_Reg_41
To systematize the mooring infrastructure.

ACT_Reg_42
To launch monitoring campaigns to collect data on air quality.

ACT_Reg_43
To launch monitoring campaigns of habitats and species to guarantee biodiversity preservation.

ACT_Reg_44
To launch monitoring campaigns of marine and coastal invasive alien plants.

ACT_Reg_45
To launch monitoring campaigns of geomorphological dynamics of beach-dune systems and of sandy coastlines.

ACT_Reg_46
To launch census and monitoring campaigns of fish species.

ACT_Reg_47
To launch monitoring campaigns of tourist activity impacts.

ACT_Reg_48
To launch monitoring campaigns of the marine avifauna of conservation interest.

ACT_Reg_49
To launch monitoring campaigns of professional fishing and its impacts.

ACT_Reg_50
To launch census and monitoring campaigns for the protection of coralligenous biocenosis.

ACT_Reg_51
To launch census and monitoring campaigns for the protection of Posidonia oceanica meadows.

ACT_Reg_52
To launch monitoring campaigns of fishing and ichthyic tourism.

ACT_Reg_53
To launch awareness-raising campaigns to prevent alien species importation.

ACT_Reg_54
To launch awareness-raising campaigns for the installation of low-impact-lighting systems aimed at reducing animal disorientation.

ACT_Reg_55
To launch awareness-raising and information campaigns to protect the species of the marine and coastal environment.

ACT_Reg_56
To launch awareness-raising and information campaigns to reduce anthropic disturbance of the avifauna in the MPA.

ACT_Reg_57
To launch awareness-raising and information campaigns to reduce waste abandonment.

ACT_Reg_58
To launch environmental education programs and activities.

ACT_Reg_59
To promote the MPA territory.

ACT_Reg_60
To promote interdisciplinary scientific research projects.

ACT_Reg_61
To plan awareness-raising, education and training activities on integrated management of coastal areas.

ACT_Reg_62
To launch awareness-raising, education and control activities to prevent material removal from the coast and the sea, according to the Regional Law 16/2017.

ACT_Reg_63
To launch campaigns to promote environmental and landscape heritage.

ACT_Reg_64
To launch information and promotional campaigns on the economic activities of the MPA.

ACT_Reg_65
To launch information and promotional campaigns addressed to the economic actors who work in the MPA.

ACT_Reg_66
To launch awareness-raising campaigns addressed to the operators of the fishing sector against the abandonment of fishing equipment.

ACT_Reg_67
To organize and intensify the surveillance in the most problematic zones, paying particular attention on marine and terrestrial areas with important tourism flows.

ACT_Reg_68
To implement the surveillance camera system.

ACT_Reg_69
To launch surveillance campaigns to protect habitats and species.

ACT_Reg_70
To organize and improve the surveillance of the fishing sector.

ACT_Reg_71
To promote poaching suppression.

ACT_Reg_72
To encourage national, regional and local initiatives through coordinate actions of promotion, cooperation and partnership.

ACT_Reg_73
To adopt adequate measures to reinforce regional, national and international cooperation.

ACT_Reg_74
To coordinate institutional intersectoral activities promoted by administrative services and regional and local authorities in charge in the coastal zones.

ACT_Reg_75
To organize access and parking in the MPA according to the environmental carrying capacity.

ACT_Reg_76
To enhance and coordinate, in cooperation with the surrounding local entities, the public transportation system that connects the Asinara Island with the municipalities of Stintino and Porto Torres.

ACT_Reg_77
To coordinate the activities for cetacean and sea turtle rescue.

Selection of Ecosystem Services for MPAs
Given the need of guaranteeing coherency and compatibility among the diverse assessments, and the aim of properly integrating ES assessment into the PS in order to update the regulations in ecosystemic terms, this paper proposes a selection of ESs for the "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA based on the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Goods and Services (CICES). CICES consists of a hierarchical scheme for ES classification based on the three main categories of ecosystem services [62]:

1.
Provisioning services: Provision of genuine goods, such as food, water, timber, fiber, fuel and other raw materials, but also genetic material and ornamental species; 2.
regulation services: Regulation of climate, air quality and water, soil formation, pollination, waste assimilation, and mitigation of natural hazards such as erosion, weeds, etc.; 3.
cultural services: Non-material benefits such as heritage and cultural identity, spiritual enrichment and intellectual, aesthetic and recreational values.
The work has been conducted on the basis of a study realized in the "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA, concerning environmental accounting in Italian marine protected areas (in Italian: "Contabilità ambientale nelle aree marine protette italiane") [63], which assigns an ecological value to environmental heritage and subsequently identifies the ecological functions and the relative ESs that characterize it.
On the basis of data provided by the MPA, a set of ESs has been identified and classified according to the CICES scheme ( Table 7). The criterion adopted for ES identification was the influence wielded over them by the protection regime in force within the MPA, and their suitability to MPA management. Table 7. Proposal of a common Ecosystem Service (ES) classification [64].

Section Division Group Class
This column lists the three main categories of ES.
This column divides section categories into the main types of output or process.
The group level splits division categories by biological, physical or cultural type or process.
The class level provides a further sub-division of group categories into biological or material outputs and bio-physical and cultural processes that can be linked back to concrete identifiable service sources.
The three sections identified by the CICES scheme are: Regulation and maintenance, provisioning and cultural. It must be noticed that these categories are not designed for a specific spatial scale nor for a unique governance level. Thus, the ES assessment needs to be tailored for MPAs and Natura 2000 sites by considering that: • Terrestrial ES (cultivated crops, surface water for drinking, etc.) are out of the scope of this study; • the MPA objectives focus more on biodiversity protection rather than on recreational functions and food productions (i.e., fishing).
Tables 8-10 illustrate the match between ES classes and PS actions related to the ES sections "regulation and maintenance", "provisioning" and "cultural", respectively. Animal-based resources Table 9. Association between ES classes and PS actions related to the ES section "regulation and maintenance".

ES Class PS Action
Bio-remediation by micro-organisms, algae, plants, and animals To adopt measures to prevent coastal erosion.
To adopt adequate measures to rehabilitate dunes and bars (protection, signage and maintenance) To assess vulnerability and risk to accordingly adopt measures of prevention, mitigation and adaptation to face consequences of natural disasters and environmental emergencies To launch monitoring campaigns of geomorphological dynamics of beach-dune systems and of sandy coastlines

Storm protection
To regulate the management of stranded Posidonia oceanica To adopt measures to prevent coastal erosion.
To adopt adequate measures to rehabilitate dunes and bars (protection, signage and maintenance) To assess vulnerability and risk to accordingly adopt measures of prevention, mitigation and adaptation to face consequences of natural disasters and environmental emergencies

Ventilation and transpiration
Pollination and seed dispersal

Maintaining nursery populations and habitats
To adopt protection and conservation measures for habitats and species To elaborate strategies and programs for the sustainable use of the MPA territory To adopt measures to facilitate the rescue of animals in distress or disoriented To regulate photo shoots, filming and TV recordings To launch eradication campaigns of all invasive or potential invasive alien plants To regulate activities allowed in each MPA zone To organize the tourism fruition system within the MPA To control and limit ship and boat speed, in order to reduce underwater noise pollution and the risk of collision with cetaceans and turtles To launch monitoring campaigns of professional fishing and its impacts.
To launch census and monitoring campaigns for the protection of coralligenous biocenosis To launch monitoring campaigns of fishing and ichthyic tourism To launch awareness-raising campaigns to prevent alien species importation Table 9. Cont.

ES Class PS Action
To launch awareness-raising campaigns for the installation of low-impact-lighting systems aimed at reducing animal disorientation To launch awareness-raising and information campaigns to protect the species of the marine and coastal environment To launch awareness-raising and information campaigns to reduce anthropic disturbance of the avifauna in the MPA To launch awareness-raising and information campaigns to reduce waste abandonment To plan awareness-raising, education and training activities on integrated management of coastal areas To launch awareness-raising, education and control activities to prevent material removal from the coast and the sea, according to the Regional Law 16/2017 To launch awareness-raising, education and control activities to prevent material removal from the coast and the sea, according to the Regional Law 16/2017 To launch campaigns to promote environmental and landscape heritage To To regulate bathing and swimming Table 9. Cont.

Section: Regulation and Maintenance
To regulate recreational boat activities To regulate activities of public passenger transport services, sailboat charters and guided tours

ES Class PS Action
To regulate chartering and leasing, even temporary, of recreational boats To define a set of indicators to asses carrying capacity of the MPA during the summer To regulate authorizations for the development of socio-economic, tourist, social and cultural activities within the MPA To tighten controls on sea-water quality.
To establish rules and regulations concerning wastewater and hydrocarbons discharge into the sea. To launch monitoring campaigns to collect data on air quality To launch census and monitoring campaigns for the protection of Posidonia oceanica meadows Table 10. Association between ES classes and PS actions related to the ES section "cultural".

ES Class PS Action
Experiential use of plants, animals and land-/sea-scapes in different environmental settings To adopt protection and conservation measures for habitats and species Physical use of land-/sea-scapes in different environmental settings To adopt protection and conservation measures for habitats and species To define identification criteria of fishing gear hallmarking.
To define a plan for the recovery of ghost fishing gear  Tables 8-10 show that the previously defined actions of the PS match all the three ES sections and that the majority of the actions refer to the "regulation and maintenance" and "cultural" ES sections. In particular, the highest number of matches is observable in the classes "maintaining nursery populations and habitats" and "chemical condition of salt waters" in the section "regulation and maintenance" and in the class "physical use of land/sea-scapes in different environmental settings" in the section "cultural". However, not all the ES classes are matched to PS actions. Nevertheless, some of them are relevant for defining an appropriate management of the MPA. For example, "wild animals and their outputs", "bio-remediation by micro-organisms, algae, plants and animals", "dilution by atmosphere, freshwater and marine ecosystems", "symbolic", "existence" and "bequest".
Subsequently to this classification, in order to assess the management of the MPA, ES classes have been grouped into five macro-themes according to the proposal of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment proposal [62] for urban, coastal and marine areas as follows: • Tourism fruition and eco-tourism; • fish biomass supply for business or entertainment purposes; • climate regulation; • water quality regulation; • landscape and cultural heritage.
These macro-themes have been assessed through a methodological approach similar to the one that guided the environmental assessment of the PS. Indeed, they have been described through a proper summary sheet with the aim of identifying a set of objectives in addition to those already defined in the PS. In this way, it is possible to update the regulations according to an "ecosystemic" perspective. Table 11 provides an example of a summary sheet for the ES "k". Table 11. Example of a summary sheet for the ES "k".

ES k
The introductive section qualitatively describes the ecosystem Service K in the analyzed territorial context. Moreover, the activities that best represent the analyzed ES are identified and articulated in specific aspects. These provide a quantitative analysis based on appropriate indicators.

Activity 1
This section provides a brief qualitative description of the activity and its characterizing aspects.

Activity n
This section provides a brief qualitative description of the activity and its characterizing aspects.

Flow calculation
Among the previously identified "ecosystemic macro-themes", for the purpose of this study, it is worth focusing on the following:

•
Fish biomass supply for business or entertainment purposes; • landscape fruition for recreational activities (bathing, diving and yachting) and scientific/educational purposes.
In the operational phase, after identifying and mapping where each ES fruition occurs in order to analyze each ES macro-theme, an interview sample was realized with the aim of monitoring anthropic pressures related to ES fruition. Data collection focused on bathing, scuba diving, professional and small-scale fishing and yachting and relied on fieldwork and interviews conducted in the MPA headquarters, especially through:

•
Questionnaires to users (i.e., tourists and scuba divers); • collection of information and documentation related to financial reports, studies and resource exploitation in the MPA headquarters. This part was conducted by the MPA staff in collaboration with the University of Genova; • analysis of the documentation on the authorizations granted by the MPA in order to assess anthropic pressures and to gather information concerning the typology of the related operator or user; • outline of a new authorization system for the simultaneous collection of information about the authorization-release procedure and of all the data needed for the application of the environmental accountability [63].
Human benefits have been assessed according to an anthropocentric approach. In particular, those that derive from ES fruition by operators, tourists and visitors of the MPA were considered as "environmental benefits" and thus evaluated in monetary terms. Differently, biophysical benefits (i.e., those related to the environment and not to humans) were assessed according to an eco-centric approach, which is currently being developed by the Department of Earth Sciences of Environment and Life of the University of Genova within a number of projects, such as GIREPAM. Environmental benefits deriving from the use of the MPA natural heritage have been re-classified on the base of the ES from which they originate [63]. Tables 12 and 13 show the summary sheets related to "tourism fruition" and "fish biomass supply for business or entertainment purposes", elaborated as an example of the previously illustrated analysis. Table 12. Summary sheet related to "tourism fruition".

ES "tourism fruition and eco-tourism"
The "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA allows the following tourism activities: Bathing. According to article 11, bathing is forbidden in zone A, and allowed in zones B and C, according to the ordinances of the of the competent maritime authority. Diving. According to articles 12 and 13 of the regulations, non-organized scuba diving is forbidden. Scuba diving tours are allowed exclusively in zones B and C during the day and at night, prior authorization and according to the procedures provided in the same regulations. Recreational boats. According to article 14 of the regulations, navigation is allowed to recreational boats with inboard engine exclusively in zone C and in the entry corridors to the mooring of "La Reale" and "Cala d'Oliva", prior authorization and according to the procedure provided in the same regulations.
Bathing Since in the "Isola dell'Asinara" seaside facilities are absent, users mainly bath in "Cala Sabina", "Cala d'Oliva" and "dell'Ossario" beaches, which are also included in guided tours. These beaches accommodate the majority of bathers, because access to other sites is more complicated. The yearly number of bathers, obtained through monitoring activity, is estimated to be approximately 44,450. During the summer of 2016, a survey was conducted on a sample of 343 bathers. They were all tourists, since the island has only one resident. 77% of the respondents were long-stay tourists, the average of their stay in Sardinia was 11 days, of which only one was spent in the MPA. Among them, 15% spent their holidays in a second home, 31% rented a house and 44% chose other options (i.e., hotel, bed and breakfast, etc.). The remaining 23% of the interviewees were one-day tourists. Figure 5 shows tourist distribution according to the following categories of tourists: (i) Usual stay; (ii) occasional stay; (iii) usual one-day stay; (iv) occasional one-day stay. Thus, among the visitors of the "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA every year, 76% are occasional tourists. With respect to the origin, 95% of bathers are residents in Italy (of them, 25% are from Sardinia and 38% from the north of Italy). All the interviewees consider the MPA important or even a priority.

Scuba Diving
Diving centers must be authorized by the MPA managing entity. Authorization is subject to verification of a number of specific requirements for diving centers. In order to protect the seabed, the managing entity monitors underwater activities, identifies dive sites and mooring points, and establishes the maximum number of dives per day and of the marine vessels daily employable by each diving center. The number of dives per day is fixed at 24 (intended as single plunges), for each of the 25 sites identified by the managing entity. The maximum number of diving centers authorized every year is 5, and the maximum number of marine vessels for each center is 2. During the three-year-period 2014-2016, the annual average of dives was 2223. With the aim of deeply analyzing habits of scuba divers, and how they perceive the MPA, a sample of 61 scuba divers were interviewed; 67% of them were men, and 55% were aged between 30 and 50. The majority of divers (92%) were from Italy, and 87% were tourists who were staying in Sardinia; 62% of divers considered the institution of the MPA a priority, whereas the remaining 38% considered it important but not a priority.

Class type Indicator Measure unit
Landscape fruition for recreational and scientific activities.

Flow calculation
The flow of the "tourist fruition" ES is calculated through the numbers of users of each fruition category.
With respect to the origin, 95% of bathers are residents in Italy (of them, 25% are from Sardinia and 38% from the north of Italy). All the interviewees consider the MPA important or even a priority.

Class type
Indicator Measure unit Landscape fruition for recreational and scientific activities.

Scuba Diving
Diving centers must be authorized by the MPA managing entity. Authorization is subject to verification of a number of specific requirements for diving centers. In order to protect the seabed, the managing entity monitors underwater activities, identifies dive sites and mooring points, and establishes the maximum number of dives per day and of the marine vessels daily employable by each diving center. The number of dives per day is fixed at 24 (intended as single plunges), for each of the 25 sites identified by the managing entity. The maximum number of diving centers authorized every year is 5, and the maximum number of marine vessels for each center is 2. During the three-year-period 2014-2016, the annual average of dives was 2223. With the aim of deeply analyzing habits of scuba divers, and how they perceive the MPA, a sample of 61 scuba divers were interviewed; 67% of them were men, and 55% were aged between 30 and 50. The majority of divers (92%) were from Italy, and 87% were tourists who were staying in Sardinia; 62% of divers considered the institution of the MPA a priority, whereas the remaining 38% considered it important but not a priority.

Class type
Indicator Measure unit Landscape fruition for recreational and scientific activities.
No. of visits.

Flow calculation
The flow of the "tourist fruition" ES is calculated through the numbers of users of each fruition category.   Table 13. Summary sheet related to "fish biomass supply for business or entertainment purposes".

ES: "Fish Biomass Supply for Business or Entertainment Purposes"
Professional Small-Scale Fishing Related to the ES The number of fishing boats that work in the MPA is 26, of which 73% are wooden vessels and the remaining 27% are made of fiberglass. The average length is 8.76 m, and the propellant is diesel.
The regulations of the "Isola dell'Asinara" MPA establishes that: -Professional small-scale fishing is forbidden in zone A; -trawling, purse-seine and fishing with light sources is forbidden; -aquaculture and active repopulation are forbidden; -professional small-scale fishing is allowed in zones B and C only to the fisheries registered in the municipality lists of the MPA, according to the procedures established by the regulations.
With regard to the calculation of fish biomass, data are obtained through visual census campaigns (conducted by the MPA). In particular, the MPA signed an agreement with the Environmental Office of Corsica (OEC, Managing Entity of the Natural Reservation of the Strait of Bonifacio, France), to monitor the fish fauna of the SAC ITB010082 "Isola dell'Asinara" and the SPA ITB010001 "Isola Asinara".
The methodology adopted was the direct count via the "visual census" technique, choosing fixed circular points and areas of 100 m 2 , with a depth between 10 and 20 m. Each fixed point was determined by using a rope of 11.3 m length, corresponding to the diameter of a circle whose area is 100 m 2 . The biomass was calculated on the basis of density data, conferring to each individual of each species an average weight according to its size class.
By multiplying the biomass value (calculated for area units) by the areas, the total amount of fish biomass was obtained: 943 tons of carbon, corresponding to 3.63% of the benthonic biomass stored in the MPA.
This amount is distributed mainly on the biocoenosis of Posidonia oceanica, on infralittoral algae and on coastal detrital.
Calculation of the fish stock underestimates the real value, because the "visual census" technique cannot detect some species, as the pelagic ones. Thus, the species captured by professional, small-scale and leisure fishers should be added to the results obtained with this methodology. However, even in this case, the sum would underestimate the real stock, because these catches would not represent the entirety of the individuals that compose the stock. Definition of "Ecosystemic objectives" was realized on the basis of the strategy of Agenda 2030 towards sustainable development (Agenda 2030 is an action program joined by 193 ONU countries in September 2015. Agenda 2030 strongly highlights the unsustainability of current economic, environmental and social development models. This vision shifts away from the common idea that sustainable development is just an environmental issue by simultaneously integrating the diverse development dimensions into one coherent vision. The agenda gathers 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into an action program articulated in 169 "targets" or "goals". The objectives were launched in 2016, and the subscribing countries committed themselves to achieve them by 2030). In particular, with the aim of defining the "ecosystemic objectives" referring to the studied MPA, the Sustainable Development Goals of Agenda 2030 refer to the themes on which the case study focuses. They have been selected and linked to the macro-themes previously defined. The selected goals are the following:

•
Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all; • Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; • Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.
Subsequently, each SDG has been matched with the previously identified macro-themes. Table 14 shows the definition of the ecosystem objectives in relation to the ES chosen for the case study and in correspondence with the selected SDG. These objectives are drawn from the SDGs, but are carefully rephrased in order to be adapted to the context.

Discussion
In this section, results previously obtained and presented are discussed, highlighting the main issues that characterized the two phases of the research. The results offer a way to cope with the critical issues related to the definition of MPA regulations, identified in the previous sections.
The research was articulated into two phases: In the first phase, the methodological approach to update the regulation in the light of Natura 2000 conservation measures was defined; in the second phase, the analysis of the constitutive elements of the PS and their assessment in light of the ESs was conducted.
Concerning the first phase of the research, it is worth noting the following two significant results: • The integration of the conservation measures provided in Natura 2000 management plans, and in the ICZM protocol and ISEA project into the regulations; • the involvement and active participation of competent authorities, public bodies, stakeholders and experienced actors-who contributed to regulation improvement by virtue of their diverse needs and visions-which reflect the contrast between environmental protection and socio-economic development. It is important to underline that this moment is not for actors to passively approve decisions already taken according to a top-down approach, but it constitutes a valuable opportunity to share knowledge among stakeholders characterized by diverse backgrounds. It is during this phase that the PS process swings into action, by actually designing the new regulation proposal. Participation is essential to effectively integrate conservation measures and sectoral policies because norms are, in this way, assessed from a legislative point of view and interpreted in the light of their impacts on MPA users' daily life. For this reason, participation is strongly encouraged from the very first steps of the PS definition process. Therefore, sharing is not limited only to results, but it also includes the working methodology.
The two results reported above allow the overcoming of some critical issues that arose during the construction of the PS:

•
The overlapping of local, regional and national competencies. In particular, while the draft of the Natura 2000 management plans is produced by municipalities, their approval is entitled to regional administrations. Similarly, MPA regulations are proposed by the MPA authority, but they are approved by the MATTM. Interaction of diverse authorities complicates the process and entails numerous difficulties, such as the fragmentation and sectorization that characterize the planning and management tools in force; • lack of operational objectives and actions in the regulations in force, which are able to adequately address a number of territorial problems and issues related to the allowed activities in the MPA. Response to this criticism is currently offered by the annual procedural guidelines, which establish detailed norms and operational conditions for the activities allowed in the MPA. In this sense, the regulation updating responds to the territorial problems and issues related to the allowed activities in the MPA by integrating the indications of the annual procedural guidelines into the new regulations.
Concerning the second phase of the research, it is worth noting the following three significant results:

•
Acquisition of knowledge and awareness of ESs and of their potential contribution to human wellbeing. This is obtained through a set of objectives oriented to promote and protect the natural capital of the MPA by giving the regulation updating an ecosystem focus. In fact, it is fundamental to orient human actions to a sustainable use of ES in order to conserve their flows, especially considering that their economy relies on specific ESs (i.e., agriculture and fishing are strictly linked to provisioning ESs, tourism takes advantage of cultural ESs, etc.). With reference to this, "ecosystemic objectives" are defined on the basis of ES and are contextualized in the area of the case study coherently with the regulation actions defined in the PS. This represents the pivotal element for the regulation process to update coherently with the EU guidelines regarding ESs. In particular, with regard to the ES "climate regulation", it was necessary to define a corresponding objective aiming at integrating measures to combat climate change into the regulations. This aspect was totally absent in the existing regulations; thus, it represents an innovation with respect to the "traditional" issues that arose during the implementation of the PS; • the formulation of a set of ecosystemic objectives and actions in coherence with Agenda 2030 objectives. This connection allowed addressing the existing objectives to specific future challenges (as in the case of objectives related to fishing in light of Objective 14 of Agenda 2030 and the fish biomass supply for business or entertainment purposes).

Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Research
In light of the previously discussed results, the main obstacles to efficient MPA management are the high variety of objectives regarding protection and development of MPAs and the need to provide users with information about norms and rules concerning the sustainable fruition of these areas. The need to overcome these discrepancies and to simultaneously facilitate users' fruition, by reducing information fragmentation, called for the construction of a dynamic and interdisciplinary instrument able to consider, in an integrated way, all the ecosystem fragilities, the coastal landscape and the human impacts on them.
The proposed conceptual approach represents the starting point for the definition of guidelines on the systematic application of the PS model to spatial planning and to the management of natural areas characterized by an overlapping of diverse normative levels.
Thus, governance and management of marine areas can be innovated according to a holistic territorial vision, able to efficiently contrast biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation.
Possible further research projects can be developed according to this vision, as, for example: • The definition of a monitoring system related to the regulation implementation, in order to assess the impacts of the coastal ecosystem management on ESs; • ES measurement through adequate accountability and statistical methods to support the decisional process. Indeed, notwithstanding their fundamental role for socio-economic development, the importance of ecosystems for human wellbeing is currently not adequately evaluated, especially at planning and regulation levels [65]. Indeed, ecosystems provide vital support to life quality, and their functions and services can be assessed in monetary terms thus including the value of natural capital in resource management and spatial planning. ES assessment should take into account ecosystem mapping, anthropic pressures that threaten them and interactions between natural capital and its potential in terms of ES provision. This requires the definition of a set of adequate and representative indicators [66]; • ES monetary assessment. In this sense, it is necessary to re-consider the whole management process in order to identify and highlight ES value, and to understand the role of their safeguarding in influencing their quality and quantity in relation to an improvement of the natural capital [22], and also in economic terms; • the introduction of an evaluation procedure for the MPA regulations. The proposed PS stresses the significative impacts of the regulations on the environment and formulates an innovative approach, inspired by SEA principles and methodology, which allows the inclusion of environmental objectives into the decisional process.
In conclusion, this study proposes an innovative ecosystem approach based on the interaction of diverse disciplines [67] that allows a draft of a new regulation proposal that is more effective with respect to the themes of environmental safeguards and biodiversity protection [68]. It demonstrates that it is possible to realize efficient ex-ante and ex-post assessment for public policies through the development of accounting systems, indicators and assessment methods related to the impact of these policies on the state of the natural capital [66]. This innovative approach can be replicated in other similar contexts for sustainable planning in coastal territories.