Exposure and Inequality of PM2.5 Pollution to Chinese Population: A Case Study of 31 Provincial Capital Cities from 2000 to 2016
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Areas
2.2. PM2.5 Concentration
2.3. Socioeconomic Data
2.4. Trend Analysis
2.5. Coefficient of Variation
2.6. Contribution Analysis
2.7. Cumulative Population Weighted Average Concentrations (CPWAC)
2.8. Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression (GTWR) Model
3. Results
3.1. PM2.5 Pollution Characteristics
3.2. The Populations Exposed to Different PM2.5 Concentrations
3.3. Exposure Inequality
3.4. Economic Effectiveness of Exposure Inequality
4. Discussion
4.1. Differences in Spatio-Temporal Distribution of PM2.5
4.2. Contribution of Population Mobility to Urban PM2.5 Pollution
4.3. Differences in Exposure and Inequality
4.4. Implications and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix A.1. Spatial Patterns and Variations in PM2.5
Appendix A.2. The Change of Population in Three Terms of 2000–2005, 2005–2010, and 2010–2016
Appendix A.3. GTWR Model Evaluation Process
Independent Variables | t | VIF |
---|---|---|
UR | −4.78 | 2.44 |
UP | −1.38 | 1.73 |
GDPPC | 5.28 | 1.17 |
SIS | 5.49 | 1.06 |
PD | 9.75 | 2.52 |
UPCDI | 6.41 | 2.57 |
Dependent Variable: PM2.5 |
Region | UR | UP | PD | GDPPC | SIS | UPCDI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Northeast | 5.69 × 10−4 | 6.63 × 10−2 | 1.74 × 10−2 | −1.77 × 10−4 | 6.68 × 10−1 | 1.18 × 10−3 |
North | 9.78 × 10−4 | −2.47 × 10−3 | 3.08 × 10−3 | −1.26 × 10−3 | 7.69 × 10−1 | 4.64 × 10−3 |
Northwest | 9.63 × 10−4 | 3.79 × 10−2 | −5.20 × 10−3 | −2.15 × 10−4 | 1.39 × 10−1 | 1.39 × 10−3 |
East | 4.22 × 10−4 | 6.05 × 10−5 | −8.87 × 10−4 | 1.11 × 10−4 | 5.32 × 10−1 | 5.63 × 10−4 |
Central | −1.14 × 10−3 | −1.21 × 10−2 | 6.23 × 10−2 | −5.82 × 10−4 | 4.74 × 10−1 | 2.41 × 10−3 |
South | 5.61 × 10−4 | −3.74 × 10−3 | 3.61 × 10−2 | 3.37 × 10−4 | 3.36 × 10−1 | −7.68 × 10−4 |
Southwest | −3.88 × 10−4 | 1.01 × 10−2 | 1.40 × 10−2 | −2.92 × 10−4 | −1.02 × 10−1 | 8.01 × 10−4 |
Abbreviation | Description |
---|---|
BTH | Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei |
CAAQS | Chinese Ambient Air Quality Standards |
CPWAC | Cumulative population weighted average concentrations |
CV | Coefficient of variation |
CVS | Civil servants |
EPCAM | Exposed Population Contribution Analysis Model |
EPS | Easy Professional Superior |
GDP | Gross Domestic Product |
GDPPC | Gross domestic product per capita |
GTWR | Geographically and temporally weighted regression |
GWR | Geographically weighted regression |
NBSPRC | National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China |
PAA | Practitioners in agriculture |
PAI | Practitioners in industry |
PATH | Practitioners in third industry |
PD | Population density |
PINBI | Principal of national bureaus and institutions |
PM2.5 | Fine particulate matter |
PRD | Pearl River Delta |
PRO | Professionals |
RPCDI | Rural per capita disposable income |
SES | Socioeconomic status |
SIS | Urban secondary industry share |
UA | Urban area |
UP | Urban population |
UPCDI | Urban per capita disposable income |
Index | Value |
---|---|
Bandwidth | 0.114996 |
Residual Squares | 33,007.9 |
Sigma | 7.91414 |
AICc | 3822.93 |
R2 | 0.833237 |
R2Adjusted | 0.831636 |
Spatio-temporal Distance Ratio | 0.359363 |
Sum of Squares | Degrees of Freedom | Mean Square | F-Statistic | Significance | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Between Groups | 314.560 | 7 | 44.937 | 1.587 | 0.191 |
Within Groups | 622.797 | 22 | 28.309 | ||
Total | 937.358 | 29 |
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Population Subgroup | Groups |
---|---|
Education | Primary |
Secondary | |
Tertiary | |
Per capita GDP (thousands of Yuan) | ≤30 |
30–40 | |
40–50 | |
50–60 | |
>60 | |
The urban secondary industry share (%) | ≤50 |
>50 | |
Urban per capita disposable income (thousands of Yuan) | ≤10 |
10–40 | |
>40 | |
Rural per capita disposable income (thousands of Yuan) | ≤2.5 |
2.5–5.0 | |
5.0–7.5 | |
7.5–10 | |
>10 | |
Job category | Professionals (PRO) |
Practitioners in third industry (PATH) | |
Civil servants (CVS) | |
Principal of national bureaus and institutions (PINBI) | |
Practitioners in industry (PAI) | |
Practitioners in agriculture (PAA) | |
Age (years) | 0–4 |
5–19 | |
20–59 | |
≥60 | |
Gender | Man |
Woman |
Category | Source | Accessed Date | Uniform Resource Location |
---|---|---|---|
2000–2013 PM2.5 | Atmospheric Composition Analysis Group Website of Dalhousie University | 11 May 2021 | http://fizz.phys.dal.ca/~atmos/martin/?page_id=140 |
2014–2016 PM2.5 | National Urban Air Quality Real-time Publishing Platform | 11 May 2021 | http://106.37.208.233:20035/ |
Socioeconomic | EPS | 30 May 2021 | http://olap.epsnet.com.cn/index.html |
Population | NBSPRC | 30 May 2021 | http://data.stats.gov.cn |
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Tu, P.; Tian, Y.; Hong, Y.; Yang, L.; Huang, J.; Zhang, H.; Mei, X.; Zhuang, Y.; Zou, X.; He, C. Exposure and Inequality of PM2.5 Pollution to Chinese Population: A Case Study of 31 Provincial Capital Cities from 2000 to 2016. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12137. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912137
Tu P, Tian Y, Hong Y, Yang L, Huang J, Zhang H, Mei X, Zhuang Y, Zou X, He C. Exposure and Inequality of PM2.5 Pollution to Chinese Population: A Case Study of 31 Provincial Capital Cities from 2000 to 2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12137. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912137
Chicago/Turabian StyleTu, Peiyue, Ya Tian, Yujia Hong, Lu Yang, Jiayi Huang, Haoran Zhang, Xin Mei, Yanhua Zhuang, Xin Zou, and Chao He. 2022. "Exposure and Inequality of PM2.5 Pollution to Chinese Population: A Case Study of 31 Provincial Capital Cities from 2000 to 2016" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12137. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912137