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Article

Production of Alternative Fuels Based on Sewage Sludge

by
Krzysztof Rećko
Department of Environmental Engineering and Biotechnology, Faculty of Infrastructure and Environment, Czestochowa University of Technology, Brzeźnicka 60a, 42-215 Czestochowa, Poland
Energies 2024, 17(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010048
Submission received: 9 November 2023 / Revised: 14 December 2023 / Accepted: 17 December 2023 / Published: 21 December 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sewage Sludge Management within Circular Economy and Bioeconomy: Policies, Economy and State-of-the-Art Technologies)
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Abstract

:
Due to the growing demand for energy, conventional fossil fuels are being depleted. Reducing dependence on energy sources based on fossil fuels is possible by using the energy potential of biomass. Sewage sludge deserves special attention. The increase in the amount of sewage sludge produced around the world poses a serious problem with its management. The use of sewage sludge to produce fuel with the possibility of energy recovery seems to be an excellent solution. The article presents the results of laboratory tests on the production of fuel in the form of granulates from mixed sewage sludge, rubber waste, and wood waste in the form of sawdust. Fuel mixtures were tested, and fuel parameters were determined. The calorific value of the tested fuel ranged from 13.92 MJ/kg to 22.15 MJ/kg, and the moisture content from 41.57% to 18.36%, depending on the percentage composition of the mixtures used to produce the granules. The ash content ranged from 14.82% to 17.40%. The composition of granulated fuel mixtures has been designed to avoid additional drying or pre-drying of sewage sludge. In this way, fuel was obtained without additional energy consumption associated with drying sewage sludge. Moreover, it should be stated that the share of sewage sludge in granulated fuel should not exceed 25%. Nowadays, such fuel can be an alternative to fossil fuels used in the cement or energy industry.

1. Introduction

The current situation in Ukraine has led to serious changes in the European energy market. Energy production and concerns about obtaining solid fuels for its production constitute a serious economic challenge for European countries [1]. Coal energy continues to be the largest source of current energy consumption. The excessive use of conventional fossil fuels is increasing serious environmental problems and energy crises around the world [2,3]. Therefore, it becomes critical to develop green and renewable energy to create a sustainable economy and promote carbon neutrality [3,4]. Furthermore, the EU climate policy of moving away from fossil fuels to other less carbon-intensive fuels due to the depletion of natural energy resources and concerns about greenhouse gas emissions forces the search for alternative energy sources [5,6].Therefore, waste may constitute a potential energy raw material for the production of fuels due to their flammable properties [5]. This solution allows for energy recovery from waste that is not suitable for reuse or when its material recovery is technologically unjustified [7]. Since waste management still poses environmental challenges affecting its individual elements [8], a very important aspect is the choice of waste management method. The use of waste with energy value will reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills as the final method of disposal [9], thus reducing the possibility of their impact on the natural environment [10]. In this way, the assumptions of the EU policy regarding limiting waste landfilling will also be implemented [11], which would allow in the future to reduce or even reduce the areas designated for waste landfills. Moreover, the method of recovering and using energy from waste fits into the model of a closed-loop economy, where waste generated in one process becomes the input material for another process [12]. Waste is used as an energy material, which allows for reducing the consumption of natural resources and reducing the amount of waste generated [13]. The use of waste as a raw material for the production of alternative fuels is also a way of managing waste with a heat of combustion above 6 MJ/kg dry matter, which, according to regulations, cannot be stored in landfills [14,15]. This group of waste includes sewage sludge, which is waste generated in sewage treatment processes. Sewage sludge poses a serious ecological and technical problem due to its increasing amounts [16]. They are created at the stage of wastewater treatment and may constitute up to approximately 3% of the incoming volume [17]. Sewage sludge is waste that poses a potential threat to the natural environment and people due to its variable physical, chemical, and biological properties [11]. The presence of organic pollutants, heavy metals, and pathogenic microorganisms in sewage sludge constitutes a risk related to their dangerous impact [18]. Legal regulations regarding waste regulate the manner of dealing with sewage sludge, including the rules and conditions for its recovery. Due to legal restrictions on the storage of sewage sludge and legal criteria for allowing it to be used for natural purposes [16], there is an increase in interest in energy recovery methods as a method of sewage sludge management [9,19]. Sewage sludge as waste can be subjected to the R1 recovery process and used mainly as a fuel or other means of energy production [9]. Unfortunately, due to the high hydration of up to 80%, the sludge is difficult to use as fuel [20] because it has a low calorific value. Sludge with a moisture and organic substance content of 50% has a calorific value of 4 MJ/kg, while sludge with the same hydration and 75% organic substance content has a calorific value of 6.5 MJ/kg [21]. Mixing sewage sludge with other waste with high calorific value will increase its energy consumption and the possibility of transformation into a valuable fuel [20].
Rubber waste from the dismantling of decommissioned vehicles, due to its calorific value similar to that of hard coal at 30 MJ/kg [22], can be used to create a fuel mixture based on sewage sludge. Recycling of decommissioned vehicles provides rubber waste in the form of rubber elements such as body seals, suspension elements, cables, seals, and covers. This waste constitutes approximately 7% of the car’s weight [23,24]. Rubber elements are found in the drive system, brake system, cooling and air conditioning system, suspension and steering system, electrical system, and bodywork. Their task is to ensure the flow of liquids and gases, sealing, electrical insulation, dampen vibrations and absorb energy, transmit power, and reduce noise. Rubber waste removed from vehicles poses a very serious technical and environmental problem due to the decomposition time in storage places [23,25]. The possibility of using rubber elements as an alternative fuel component is a solution that allows for the reduction of the amount of waste sent to landfills and its recovery for energy purposes.
Another ingredient that, together with rubber waste from recycling decommissioned vehicles, can be used to create an alternative fuel based on sewage sludge is sawdust. It is created in woodworking plants during mechanical wood processing [26]. Unfortunately, sawdust was most often used to make particleboard in paper mills. The lack of other ways to manage this material has led to its disposal without any treatment through landfilling, burning in the open, or piling along roads and water bodies [27]. This led to a situation where they were largely underutilized and caused air pollution. With today’s energy revolution, wood, and wood by-products, including sawdust, can provide a sustainable source of components for bioenergy and biofuel production [28,29]. Wood and its residues, including sawdust, are classified as biomass, defined as any biodegradable organic material derived from animals, plants, or microorganisms. Wood biomass is considered a carbon-neutral material, thus attracting growing interest in using it for energy generation [30].Sawdust, as a wood biomass resource used for energy production, is characterized by low transportation costs and availability in many countries [31,32]. With the ease of its direct use or conversion to fuel, it can be considered an environmentally friendly and economically viable energy source [33]. They are a valuable energy raw material due to their calorific value of 18.5–20 MJ/kg [26]. Mixing sewage sludge with waste characterized by a high percentage of dry matter leads to dewatering of the sludge and creates the possibility of obtaining a mixture with a higher calorific value [34]. Reducing the moisture content leads to improved fuel quality, influencing its energetic and physical properties, which are important from the point of view of the combustion process [35].

2. Materials

The research used sewage sludge, rubber waste, and wood waste in the form of sawdust. Sewage sludge came from the municipal sewage treatment plant in Częstochowa. The sample for testing was taken after the dewatering process on mechanical presses by thoroughly mixing disposable samples taken at the same time from different places of the sewage sludge intended for testing. Sample collection was performed in accordance with the PN-EN ISO 5667-13:2011 standard [36]. The tested sewage sludge sample is shown in Figure 1.
Rubber waste was obtained from dismantling stations for decommissioned vehicles. There were various types of rubber elements used in motor vehicles. Rubber waste in the form of pipes used to flow liquids, gaskets for sealing bodywork (windows, doors), and floor mats were used for the tests. The tested sample of rubber waste is shown in Figure 2.
Wood waste in the form of sawdust was obtained from a company producing furniture products, such as tables, chairs, wardrobes, and floors. The wood sawdust was collected after the mechanical processing of wood. The process of mechanical processing of wood consisted of cutting, milling, turning, and leveling the surface. The tested sawdust sample is shown in Figure 3.
The fuel mixture was obtained by mixing sewage sludge, rubber waste, and sawdust in appropriate proportions. The percentage proportions of fuel mixture components at individual stages of testing are presented in Table 1.
The prepared fuel mixtures differed in the percentage of individual components used to produce them. Before mixing with other ingredients, rubber waste was crushed to obtain a homogeneous fuel mixture. Rubber waste after the shredding process is shown in Figure 4.
The fuel mixture prepared for testing was subjected to a granulation process. Fuel in the form of granulates is shown in Figure 5.

3. Methods

The first part of the research included analyzing selected waste. Sewage sludge, rubber waste, and sawdust were tested for moisture content, volatile matter, ash, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, and chlorine, and their calorific values were determined. Before further testing, rubber waste was shredded. The process of shredding rubber waste was carried out using a through-type cutting mill with the possibility of adjusting the size of the obtained material fractions from 0.5 mm to 2 mm.
The second part of the research consisted of preparing ingredients in appropriate percentages that would enable obtaining fuel mixtures. Sewage sludge with a moisture content of 80%, rubber waste, and sawdust prepared for testing were mixed in appropriate proportions in a laboratory mixer. The mixtures prepared in this way were then sent to the granulation process. The granulation process was carried out in a laboratory granulator equipped with a dispenser with the ability to set the mixture flow rate. Mixtures directed to the granulator through the dispenser entered the drum and then onto a pair of cylindrical rollers, which pressed the material into the cylindrical holes of the die. In this way, fuel was obtained in the form of granulates with a diameter of 6 mm.
The third part of the research included the determination of the basic parameters of sewage sludge, rubber waste, sawdust, and the produced fuel in the form of granulates in terms of energy use in the cement industry. The tests were performed in laboratory conditions in accordance with the standards applicable in Poland. The chlorine content was determined based on the PN-ISO 587:2000 standard [37], and the sulfur content was determined in accordance with the ISO 19579:2006 standard [38] using the LECO Tru Spec CHN automatic analyzer. The heat of combustion was determined based on the ISO 1928:2009 standard [39]. Using the LECO Tru Spec CHN automatic analyzer, the content of carbon and hydrogen elements was determined in accordance with the ISO 29541:2010 standard [40]. The moisture content was determined by the drying method-part 3 in accordance with the PN-EN 15414 3:2011 standard [41]. The determination of the volatile matter content was carried out in accordance with the PN-EN 15402:2011 standard [42], and the ash content was determined based on the PN-EN 15403:2011 standard [43].

4. Results and Discussion

Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 present the results of the analysis of samples of sewage sludge, rubber waste, and wood waste in the form of sawdust. The parameters necessary to determine the suitability of waste for fuel production were determined, i.e., moisture, ash, volatile matter, and content of content, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, chlorine, and calorific value.
The obtained sample results show that the sewage sludge contained 80.22% moisture, 59.75% volatile matter, 33.54% ash, and 30.50% carbon. In the case of rubber waste and sawdust, the moisture content was 0.78% and 7.79%, respectively. The content of volatile matter and ash in rubber waste was 73.21% and 18.23%, respectively, while in sawdust the volatile matter was 92.97% and the ash was 0.89%. The carbon content of rubber waste and sawdust was 56.12% and 54.98%, respectively. The analysis shows that sewage sludge had the highest moisture and ash content. The moisture and ash content influences the quality of the fuel [44]. Too high moisture content reduces the calorific value and increases the energy consumption necessary to evaporate water [5,45]. However, high ash content constitutes ballast for the fuel and reduces its calorific value [46]. In the case of volatile matter content, the highest amount was found in sawdust and rubber waste. They determine the content of flammable substances in the waste. The amount of carbon contained in materials affects the oxidation process. Increased sulfur content occurred in sewage sludge and amounted to 1.36%, and in rubber waste 1.21%. Sulfur and chlorine compounds in large quantities cause corrosion of installations used for thermal processes [47,48]. The calorific value of sewage sludge was the lowest and amounted to 0.89 MJ/kg, which resulted from the high hydration of sewage sludge. The highest calorific value was obtained for rubber waste, which amounted to 31.56 MJ/kg, and in the case of wood waste sawdust, the calorific value was 17.45 MJ/kg. In order to determine the fuel parameters of the produced granulated fuel and its possible use in the cement or energy industry, a technical and elemental analysis was performed. Table 5 presents a summary of the results of the granulated fuel parameters obtained in the tests.
As shown in Table 5, the moisture content of the obtained granulated fuel ranged from 41.57% to 18.36%. The lowest moisture content was obtained for fuel with a composition of 25% sewage sludge, 25% rubber waste, and 50% wood waste sawdust. For comparison, moisture content documented by Wasilewski et al. [49] ranged from 3.2% to 19.1% for hard coal and 10.9–54.6% for brown coal. Also within this range were the results of the moisture content of the fossil fuels studied: hard coal (8.7%) and brown coal (13.0%) reported by Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. [50]. A comparison of the moisture content for granular fuel in test IV was within the range of moisture content for hard coal, while that in test I was within the range for brown coal. The increased share of wood waste and sawdust and the reduced share of sewage sludge had a significant impact on reducing moisture in the fuel. After determining the moisture in the granulated fuel, the ash and volatile matter contents were determined. The obtained results of the percentage of ash and volatile matter indicate that the highest ash content of 17.40% was found in granulated fuel with a composition of 40% sewage sludge, 25% rubber waste and 40% wood waste sawdust, and the lowest amount of ash was 14.82% in the fuel with a composition of 30% sewage sludge, 30% rubber waste, and 40% wood waste sawdust. In the case of hard coal, Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. [50] found an ash content of 18.9% and 7.6% for brown coal. The ash content evaluated by Wasilewski et al. [49] for fossil fuels ranged from 3.5 to 26.9%. The ash content in the fuels studied here was comparable to the values for solid fossil fuels. The highest volatile matter content of 78.36% was recorded for fuel consisting of 25% sewage sludge, 25% rubber waste, and 50% wood waste sawdust, and the lowest (76.40%)—for fuel consisting of 50% sewage sludge, 25% rubber waste, and 25% wood waste sawdust. The results showed that the volatile content for granular fuels was higher compared to hard coal (26.8–35) [49,50] and brown coal (45.4–55%) [49,50].The addition of wood waste sawdust in the amount of 50% resulted in an increase in the content of volatile parts in the granulated fuel.
The calorific value of the tested fuels ranged from 13.92 MJ/kg to 22.15 MJ/kg. The lowest calorific value of 13.92 MJ/kg was obtained for granulated fuel with a composition of 50% sewage sludge, 25% rubber waste, and 25% wood waste. The fuels tested had heating values significantly higher than those in the 8.5–15 MJ/kg range for brown coal used in the energy industry [12,49]. The highest calorific value of 22.15 MJ/kg was found in granulated fuel consisting of 25% sewage sludge, 25% rubber waste, and 50% wood waste. This value is comparable with the calorific value of 21–23 MJ/kg of hard coal used in the cement industry [49,50]. The increase in the calorific value was influenced by a 50% reduction in the share of sewage sludge in the fuel composition. The obtained calorific value is comparable to the calorific value of 21.67 MJ/kg of fuel obtained on the basis of sewage sludge and shitake substrate [51]. A similar calorific value of 14–18 MJ/kg was obtained by Smoliński et al. [52] in fuel based on sewage sludge with the addition of hard coal. Similar research results were obtained by Chen et al. [53] obtaining fuel from sewage sludge and wood dust with a calorific value of 21–23 MJ/kg. The sulfur content in granulated fuel ranges from 0.55% to 0.32%, and the chlorine content ranges from 0.03% to 0.01%. The sulfur content was comparable to that found in hard coal, ranging from 0.32 to 2.3% [49,54], but lower for brown coal (0.6–1.1%) [49,50]. A comparison of chlorine content in the fuels studied revealed that the results were 0.04–0.4% for hard coal [49] and 0.005–0.057% for brown coal [49]. With such small amounts of these compounds in the fuel, their negative impact on thermal process installations will be negligible. Based on the obtained test results of the produced granulated fuel, it can be concluded that the fuel has a large energy potential, creates the possibility of partial independence from solid fossil fuels, and also enables the safe neutralization of hazardous substances contained in sewage sludge.

5. Summary of Conclusions

The laboratory tests carried out allow us to conclude that there is a potential possibility of producing alternative fuel based on sewage sludge, rubber waste, wood waste, and sawdust. The produced fuel can be used in the cement or energy industry through co-combustion with natural fossil fuels.
The analysis of the laboratory test results presented in the article allows us to formulate the following conclusions:
  • The use of sewage sludge in the fuel mixture should constitute up to 25% of its total weight;
  • The use of sewage sludge for the production of granulated fuel does not require additional drying or pre-drying;
  • The obtained granulated fuel is an excellent alternative for the management of sewage sludge unsuitable for agricultural use;
  • Replacing fossil fuels with granular fuels can reduce carbon dioxide emissions and reduce dependence on natural fuels;
  • The obtained fuel parameters confirm its high quality;
  • The produced granulated fuel can be used for energy production.
Further tests of the produced granulated fuel are necessary for combustion or co-combustion with other natural fuels in the cement or energy industry in order to determine the optimization of the combustion process parameters.

6. Patents

The presented method of producing fuels from municipal sewage sludge and rubber waste has been patented-PATENT PL 237996 B1.

Funding

This research was funded by the statute subvention of Czestochowa University of Technology, Faculty of Infrastructure and Environment.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Municipal sewagesludge.
Figure 1. Municipal sewagesludge.
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Figure 2. Rubber waste from end-of-life vehicles.
Figure 2. Rubber waste from end-of-life vehicles.
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Figure 3. Wood waste (sawdust).
Figure 3. Wood waste (sawdust).
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Figure 4. Shredded rubber waste from end-of-life vehicles.
Figure 4. Shredded rubber waste from end-of-life vehicles.
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Figure 5. Alternative fuel in the form of granulated.
Figure 5. Alternative fuel in the form of granulated.
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Table 1. Percentage of fuel mixture components.
Table 1. Percentage of fuel mixture components.
TestPercentage Proportions of Fuel Mixtures
I50% sewage sludge
25% rubber waste
25% sawdust
II40% sewage sludge
20% rubber waste
40% sawdust
III30% sewage sludge
30% rubber waste
40% sawdust
IV25% sewage sludge
25% rubber waste
50% sawdust
Table 2. Results of the analysis of the tested sewage sludge.
Table 2. Results of the analysis of the tested sewage sludge.
Determined
Parameter		Sewage
Sludge
Moisture content W [%]80.22
Volatile parts V [%]59.75
Ash A [%]33.54
Carbon C [%]30.50
Hydrogen H [%]3.60
Sulphur S [%]1.36
Chlorine Cl [%]0.08
Calorific value Qi [MJ/kg]0.89
Table 3. Results of rubber waste analysis.
Table 3. Results of rubber waste analysis.
Determined
Parameter		Rubber
Waste
Moisture content W [%]0.78
Volatile parts V [%]73.21
Ash A [%]18.23
Carbon C [%]56.12
Hydrogen H [%]4.94
Sulphur S [%]1.21
Chlorine Cl [%]0.19
Calorific value Qi [MJ/kg]31.56
Table 4. Results of the analysis of wood waste in the form of sawdust.
Table 4. Results of the analysis of wood waste in the form of sawdust.
Determined
Parameter		Wood
Waste
Moisture content W [%]7.79
Volatile parts V [%]92.97
Ash A [%]0.89
Carbon C [%]54.98
Hydrogen H [%]6.29
Sulphur S [%]0.05
Chlorine Cl [%]0.01
Calorific value Qi [MJ/kg]17.45
Table 5. Summary of fuel parameter results obtained in the tests.
Table 5. Summary of fuel parameter results obtained in the tests.
TestMoisture Content
W		Volatile Parts
V		Ash
A		Carbon
C		Hydrogen
H		Sulphur
S		Chlorine
Cl		Calorific Value
Qi
Unit
[%][%][%][%][%][%][%][MJ/kg]
I41.5776.4015.1534.047.290.550.0313.92
II31.7876.5317.4037.416.970.480.0217.75
III22.5477.4514.8242.646.710.410.0219.66
IV18.3678.3616.4647.886.810.320.0122.15
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Rećko, K. Production of Alternative Fuels Based on Sewage Sludge. Energies 2024, 17, 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010048

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Rećko K. Production of Alternative Fuels Based on Sewage Sludge. Energies. 2024; 17(1):48. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010048

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Rećko, Krzysztof. 2024. "Production of Alternative Fuels Based on Sewage Sludge" Energies 17, no. 1: 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010048

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