Indexed in MEDLINE, SCI & KoreaMed
pISSN 1011-8934   eISSN 1598-6357
Open Access, Peer-reviewed, Weekly
    J Korean Med Sci. 2021 Oct 18;36(40):e275. English.
    Published online Oct 01, 2021.
    https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2021.36.e275
    © 2021 The Korean Academy of Medical Sciences.
    Review

    Creating Logical Flow When Writing Scientific Articles

    Edward Barroga,1 and Glafera Janet Matanguihan2
      • 1Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke's International University, Tokyo, Japan.
      • 2Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.
    • Address for Correspondence: Edward Barroga, PhD. Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke's International University, 10-1 Akashi-cho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0044, Japan. Email: edward-barroga@slcn.ac.jp
    Received September 05, 2021; Accepted September 22, 2021.

    This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

    Abstract

    Numerous guidelines on how to write a scientific article have been published. Many books and articles giving detailed instructions on how to develop a research question, perform a literature search, or design a study protocol are widely available. However, there are few guidelines on how to create logical flow when writing a scientific article. Logical flow is the key to achieving a smooth and orderly progression of ideas, sentences, paragraphs, and content towards a convincing conclusion. This article provides guidelines for creating logical flow when writing the text and main sections of a scientific article. The first step is creating a draft outline of the whole article. Once completed, the draft outline is developed into a single, coherent article that logically explains the study. Logical flow in the text is created by using precise and concise words, composing clear sentences, and connecting well-structured paragraphs. The use of transitions connects sentences and paragraphs, ensuring clarity and coherence when presenting academic arguments and conclusions. Logical flow in the main sections of a scientific article is achieved by presenting the whole story of the article sequentially in the introduction, methods, results, and discussion, focusing attention on the most important points in each section, and connecting all of these to the main purpose of the study.

    Graphical Abstract

    Keywords
    Logical Flow; Scientific Writing; Scientific Article; Transitions; Coherence; Clarity

    INTRODUCTION

    Creating a logical flow in scientific articles can be developed and honed through practice and study. Although it can be overwhelming for writers to maintain a clear and organized content, there are guidelines on how to achieve clarity and brevity in scientific articles.1, 2 Keeping track of ideas and writing in a clear and concise manner will benefit readers. Articles with disorganized content from unrelated text and shifting ideas are difficult to comprehend. Moreover, disorganized content diverts attention from the main aim or focus of scientific articles.3

    A well-written scientific article requires content proficiency and specialized writing skills to weave together terminology, language, facts, and ideas into a highly coherent information4 devoid of repetitive language.5, 6 Clear and logical writing efficiently disseminates quality primary data and its analyses.7

    There are numerous guidelines for writing a scientific article, often with specific instructions for developing a research question, performing a literature search, or designing a study protocol.8, 9, 10 However, there is still a need for more journal articles detailing the sequential steps and providing published examples on how to achieve logical flow in scientific writing.8, 11 This article aims to provide specific guidelines to help authors create and maintain logical flow when writing the text and main sections of a scientific article. To illustrate key points, examples from peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided.

    CHARACTERIZING POOR WRITING FLOW

    Writing that lacks flow often has no logical argument or structure. It contains awkward phrasing and disjointed sentences which do not effectively lead to the next logical idea.12, 13 The sentences are fragmented, robotic, repetitive, or exaggerated,6 with inconsistencies in tenses and use of language.14 Missing transitions create disjointed phrases or paragraphs with little sense of continuity.14 The writing shifts from one topic to another12 and provides no evidence towards a valid conclusion.15

    Poor writing flow weakens the unity and substance of a scientific article. Readers will not be able to adequately understand the research findings. They may be unable to experience a phenomenon or an event being described since they cannot comprehend the core message of the article. Often, this incomprehension is due to failure by the writer to communicate convincing conclusions and novelty.16 Poor writing flow can create a sense of disconnect between the author and the reader,6 and may stem from the author's lack of mastery of the content and weak writing skills.17, 18 Signs of weak writing may include the use of contracted or casual words, improper collocations, illegitimate or redundant text, long incomprehensible sentences, illogical argumentation, nominalization, and inappropriate hedges.19 Thus, achieving clarity and logical flow when writing a scientific article is a crucial skill to acquire and deserves serious attention.

    EMPHASIZING LOGICAL FLOW IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING

    Logical flow is the smooth and orderly progression of ideas, sentences, and paragraphs20, 21 without ambiguity or excessive transitioning.22, 23 Style, tone, viewpoint, and tenses14 are consistent, even when using varied language,6 word order, and length of sentences.3 Logical flow allows readers to comprehend ideas with speed and ease.17 The goal of any writer should be to present ideas consistently and coherently24 without interruption of the writing flow, enabling readers to connect with the ideas.16 The logical organization and linking25 of ideas and content23 require a detailed understanding and step-by-step presentation of the study's internal logic26 to achieve credibility and a sound conclusion.27

    CREATING LOGICAL FLOW IN ARTICLE TEXT

    Creating logical flow in the text requires the use of concise words, clear sentences, and well-structured paragraphs. To maintain overall coherence, sentences and paragraphs should be connected by appropriate transitions. This would ensure sound arguments with logical conclusions.17, 28

    Writing concise words

    To be concise, writers should choose brief but comprehensive words that most effectively communicate findings. Brevity in writing involves pruning redundant words or overstated ideas and directly presenting the message17 thus maintaining reader interest.23 Use of correct terminology or specialized vocabulary (i.e., discipline-specific terminology), general academic vocabulary, and more formal instead of colloquial words would help in concise writing.29 When faced with several options, the word that best conveys the meaning of a phrase should be used. Choosing precise words ensures clarity of the text without superfluities (Table 1).

    Table 1
    Commonly used phrases, their shortened forms, and writing examples30

    Composing clear sentences

    The clarity of sentences determines the readability and comprehension of an article. To write clear sentences, focus on one topic.31 Without sacrificing clarity, remove redundancy and minimize fragments in the middle of sentences (e.g., which, that, although, where, and when). Use less modifiers (e.g., very, basically, generally, specifically) and avoid unnecessary clauses beginning with that, who, and which.

    It is advisable to vary the types, lengths, and start of sentences. Write parallel sentences and combine sentences with the same ideas. Tie ideas together in sentences by using pronouns, repeating keywords, and inserting transitional words or phrases (e.g., therefore, however, or consequently).13 Highlight content using short and declarative sentences (i.e., 20–25 words maximum length)5 or sentences with a maximum of three lines.3, 32

    Box 1. Examples of long or unclear sentences made shorter and clearer (revised parts in bold font)

    • • Respiratory medicine

      Original sentence (20 words): A 55-year-old woman was admitted in a hospital complaining of experiencing 10 minutes of chest pain after smoking a cigarette.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (15 words): A 55-year-old woman was admitted for chest pain she felt for 10 minutes after smoking.

    • • Cardiology

      Original sentence (18 words): The coronary spasm is specifically an important differential diagnosis of the causes of the chest pain in patients.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (10 words): Coronary spasm is an important differential diagnosis of chest pain.

    • • Oncology

      Original sentence (20 words): Our progress of chemotherapy to the treatment of unresectable colorectal cancer has provided many patients with a prolonged survival period.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (11 words): Progress in chemotherapy for unresectable colorectal cancer has prolonged patient survival.

    • • Pathology

      Original sentence (29 words): The histological types were distributed and classified as adenocarcinoma in 51 cases, squamous cell carcinoma in 24 cases, large cell carcinoma in 15 cases, and carcinoid in 10 cases.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (17 words): The histological types were adenocarcinoma (n = 51),squamous cell carcinoma (n = 24),large cell carcinoma (n = 15), and carcinoid (n = 10).

    • • Genetics

      Original sentence (28 words): An abnormal noradrenaline transporter gene has been reported by other studies in a part of the disease, and the pathological conditions based in genetic abnormality are being suspected.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (18 words): An abnormal noradrenaline transporter gene reportedly plays a role in the disease pathogenesis,thus genetic abnormality is suspected.

    • • Nursing

      Original sentence (40 words): Among the factors which have effects on quality of life, the positive factors were Spousal Support and the negative factors were Distress and infertility period, and of those factors, the most influential negative factor on quality of life was Distress.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (27 words): Among factors affecting quality of life, the positive factor was spousal support and the negative factors were distress and infertility period, with distress being the strongest factor.

    • • Nursing

      Original sentence (30 words): A social support has been specifically described as having the very function of buffering life when there is a stressfull life events and is related to promoting our very well-being.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (14 words): Social support has a buffering function against stressful life events and promotes our well-being.

    • • Science/medicine

      Original sentence (9 words): It is a method that is often carried out.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (5 words): This method is often performed.

    • • Science/medicine

      Original sentence (10 words): This is a procedure that is recommended by the FDA.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (7 words): This procedure is recommended by the FDA.

    • • Science/medicine

      Original sentence (6 words): These data are preliminary in nature.

      Shorter and clearer sentence (4 words): These data are preliminary.

    Constructing well-structured paragraphs

    Constructing well-structured paragraphs involves focusing on the main idea of each paragraph and ensuring unity, coherence, and evidenced-based explanations of the idea.33

    The first sentence in a paragraph is the topic sentence.21, 31 It introduces the main idea of the paragraph31 and gives a clue to its contents21, 23, 33 and their interpretion.11, 16 A well-written topic sentence has a specific assertion.34 It creates a framework for connecting the supporting ideas in the paragraph.35

    The middle sentences corroborate the main idea in the topic sentence.31 These sentences provide explanations, definitions, comments, evidence, and examples to illustrate important points.21

    The last sentence summarizes the information in the middle sentences.31 It re-emphasizes the topic sentence and acts as a transition sentence to the next paragraph.31, 32, 36

    When writing paragraphs, write facts and avoid lengthy generalizations.24 Preferably, compose sentences of about 20 words31 and relate all sentences to the main idea. Make each sentence flow from the previous sentence while maintaining a link to the topic sentence. Maintain the “one idea-one paragraph” principle and build paragraphs based on deductive reasoning.33 It may help to use a sentence pattern to achieve a linear logic,15 as an important feature of the text is a linear flow of argumentation wherein the theme of the previous sentence becomes a topic of the following sentence.29

    Overall, successful flow in paragraphs is determined by selecting unified ideas that support the main idea in each paragraph, and then creating effective connections between paragraphs.6 This sequence in paragraphs builds a compelling argument with logical flow14 (Fig. 1).

    Fig. 1
    Construction of a well-structured paragraph.

    Connecting sentences and paragraphs using transitions

    Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that connect consecutive sentences or paragraphs37, 38 and enable readers to follow the logical flow of the message.39 Transitions may be grouped into three encompassing categories as to how these create logical flow in terms of language, role, and function.

    In terms of language, Philbrook37 classified transitions into transitional words, transitional sentences, and transitional paragraphs as summarized below. Some examples from published articles are also provided.

    Transitional words indicate the relationship between each idea (e.g., additionally, as well as, conversely, otherwise).

    Box 2. Examples of transitional words (in bold font) from published articles

    • “One of the most worrying features of COVID-19 is a phenomenon known as the “cytokine storm”, which is a rapid overreaction of the immune system. Additionally, coagulation abnormalities, thrombocytopenia and digestive symptoms, including anorexia, vomiting, and diarrhea, are often observed in critically ill patients with COVID-19.”40

    • “We describe the validity of measures and their potential biases, as well as the scientific methods used in this field.”41

    • “Although obesity provides an advantage in cold conditions it conversely impedes heat loss and makes obese people susceptible to heat stress more than lean individuals.”42

    • “There are several instances where tele-physiotherapy may be an appropriate form of primary care, including the early management of acute pain, which may otherwise become chronic.”43

    Transitional sentences connect one paragraph to another. These sentences mention the topic of the previous paragraph, and establish a connection between that previous topic and the next topic.

    Box 3. Example of transitional sentence (in bold font) (field: breast cancer)44

    Box 4. Example of transitional sentence (in bold font) (field: cardiac surgery)45

    Transitional paragraphs serve as introductory paragraphs to describe the large section and transition readers to new information.

    Box 5. Example of a transitional paragraph (in bold font) (field: gastroenterology)46

    In terms of role, wordvice.com classified transitions into four types47: additive, adversative, causal, and sequential transitions, as summarized below. Examples from published articles are also provided.

    Additive transitions indicate the addition of new information (e.g., furthermore, in addition to), highlight information (e.g., particularly, to illustrate), refer to something (e.g., regarding, with regards to), show similarity (e.g., similarly, in the same way), and clarify important information (e.g., specifically, this means that).47

    Box 6. Example of an additive transition (in bold font)

    • “Inflammation markers have been proposed as prognostic markers for the development of T2DM and its complications. Furthermore, modulation of the inflammatory process may offer future treatment strategies for T2DM.”48

    Adversative transitions distinguish facts, arguments, and other information by contrasting and showing differences (e.g., however, on the other hand), distinguishing/emphasizing points (e.g., primarily, most importantly), conceding points (e.g., nevertheless, in spite of), dismissing an argument or assertion (e.g., regardless of, at any rate), and indicating an alternative (e.g., instead of, at least).47

    Box 7. Example of an adversative transition (in bold font)

    • “Evidence of the relationship between temperature during pregnancy and human embryo mortality is limited. Most importantly, the literature lacks causal estimations and studies on early pregnancy losses.”49

    Causal transitions show the cause or reason (e.g., since, owing to), explain the conditions (e.g., unless, in the event that), show the effects/results (e.g., therefore, as a result), show the purpose (to, for the purpose), and highlight the importance of circumstances (e.g., otherwise, under these circumstances). These transitions are used after establishing an important point or for exploring hypothetical relationships.47

    Box 8. Example of a causal transition (in bold font)

    • “Transplants have become common with excellent patient and graft outcomes owing to advances in surgical technique, immunosuppression, and antimicrobial prophylaxis.”50

    Sequential transitions organize information by number (e.g., firstly, first of all), show continuation in thought or action (e.g., subsequently, after this), refer to previously mentioned information (e.g., summarizing, as mentioned above), indicate digressions (e.g., incidentally, returning to the subject), and make a conclusion (e.g., overall, in conclusion). Sequential transitions create structure to help understand the logical development of the methods, results, and analysis.47

    Box 9. Example of a sequential transition (in bold font)

    • “A serine/threonine protein phosphatase (PPs) activity assay was employed to monitor PPs activity. Subsequently, flow cytometry was used to monitor chemokines levels in plasma samples from individuals with cognitive deficits.”51

    In terms of function, some examples are as follows6: to express agreement or reinforcement (e.g., also, in the same way, likewise); to express alternatives or contrarian evidence (e.g., in contrast, on the contrary, in reality, although, instead, rather); to present effects or consequences (e.g., as a result, for this reason, thus, consequently, therefore, accordingly); to introduce examples or to emphasize importance (e.g., for example, for instance, to demonstrate, as an illustration, notably, namely, indeed, certainly, such as, in fact); to conclude, summarize, or restate ideas (e.g., all things considered, as shown, given these points, in short, to summarize, in essence, altogether, to sum up, in any case, ultimately); and to hedge (e.g., possibly, this suggests, it may seem, perhaps, we may conclude).12

    Box 10. Example of a transition in terms of function (in bold font)

    • “Elderly population and age-related diseases are on the rise. On the contrary, aging studies are technically hard to conduct, because they require elderly animals, the maintenance of which requires ample effort and is expensive.”52

    Altogether, transitions link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs6, 12, 17, 23 and create logical connections that help deliver the argument, present information, and enhance coherence and flow.4

    Ensuring sound argument to achieve logical connections

    Effective transitions provide connection, clarity, and logical flow to ideas and arguments. However, they cannot be used solely as a substitute for ideas and content. Ideas must first be established in a simple and orderly way—through clear sentences and well-structured paragraphs. Afterwards, appropriate transitions should be used to connect individual sentences and consecutive paragraphs and show how these are related.53 After using transitions to develop the sentences and paragraphs fully, integrate the topic sentence, lines of evidence, and other attributes of each paragraph to ensure the logical movement of an argument through the text.35 This entails clearly stating the thesis statement and supporting it with thoroughly analyzed evidence. It also implies the logical discussion, exploration, explanation, reflection, summary, synthesis, and participation in the whole intellectual process of scientific writing.34

    Maintaining overall coherence

    Coherence in scientific articles means that the words, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs are clearly related to one another and to the main topic of the article.12 It is achieved when the ideas flow precisely and logically.54 Scientific articles must maintain both logical coherence and lexical coherence. Logical coherence is achieved by the orderly placement of the main ideas and their supporting details.55 Lexical coherence is attained by the appropriate use of words that help readers navigate the article to its main message.34 Coherence can be maintained by repetition of keywords or by referring to the main idea of the previous paragraph before introducing the current paragraph.56

    ESTABLISHING LOGICAL FLOW IN THE ARTICLE AND ITS MAIN SECTIONS

    After creating logical flow in the article text, the next step is to present the whole story of the article by establishing logical flow in its main sections: introduction, methods, results, and discussion (i.e., IMRAD)5 and avoiding language errors.57 The focus is on the most important points and the order in which they are presented.23 Regarding order, the rhetorical (move-step) model can be applied to empirical research articles to establish logical flow.29

    Creating the introduction section

    The introduction section describes how the study adds new knowledge that addresses an important question.32 Create logical flow in the introduction section by making three paragraphs.7 In the first paragraph, describe the scope, nature, or magnitude of the problem being addressed. In the second paragraph, clearly articulate why a better understanding of this problem is useful. Include current knowledge and previous studies' limitations. In the third paragraph, state the aims and briefly explain what the study adds to the scientific knowledge base.5, 7

    Constructing the methods section

    The methods section provides information necessary for recreating the analysis given the same data. To create logical flow in the methods section, describe exactly how the data relevant to the study's objectives or purpose were collected, organized, and analyzed.5 Describe the study design first, followed by the setting, subjects, data collection methods, and finally data analysis.7 Refrain from writing partial results in the methods section.11

    Describing the results section

    To logically describe the results section, draft the figures first to reveal data trends or relationships, and then the tables to show specific data points. Use these figures and tables as supporting evidence when describing the main outcome. Next, identify the figures and tables that best describe the findings. Then, write a sentence summarizing each figure and table.5 Afterwards, write the text with a sequential discussion and a brief statement of conclusion for each figure and table. Interpret the results in detail in the discussion section.7, 32 Present the data efficiently and logically by focusing on how they relate to the main purpose or objectives of the study.11

    Organizing the discussion section

    The discussion section is the keystone of a scientific article. Write the discussion section with precision, brevity and without ambiguity.58 Unify ideas to clearly communicate the main message of the study. Observe brevity but do not sacrifice logic and clarity.11 To achieve logical flow, aim to write the discussion in four to six paragraphs.

    In the first paragraph, briefly restate what the study's purpose or objectives are. Then, highlight the key results59 with a focus on how these met the study's aims.7

    In the second, third, and fourth paragraphs, contextualize each key result with the relevant literature in separate paragraphs. When interpreting key results, emphasize their uniqueness, usefulness, and relevance. Then, expand the interpretation by assessing what can be achieved now with these new data or what gap in previous knowledge could be filled.32 Finally, frame the results by describing how the study adds to the literature.59 Follow the same order of the methods and results when discussing each key result.7

    In the fifth paragraph, state the limitations in the methodology, results, or manuscript organization.59 Then, list the strengths and weaknesses of the study. Finally, describe the needs and offer perspectives for future studies.7

    In the sixth paragraph, state the conclusions and implications of the study. Then, provide recommendations for further research into the remaining gaps. Finally, make suggestions regarding the changes needed.5

    Establishing logical flow in the whole article

    To establish logical flow and readability of the whole article, write short, simple, clear, concise, and coherent sentences.60 Choose and correctly place keywords and transitions to establish a link between sentences and between paragraphs. Be mindful of the logical interrelationship between the first and final parts, together with the supporting middle parts.61 This means that the first (topic), middle, and final sentences in paragraphs are logically connected, and that the first, middle, and final paragraphs in an article are logically interrelated61 (Fig. 2).

    Fig. 2
    Establishing logical flow in a scientific article and its main sections.

    CONCLUSION

    Creating logical flow is a crucial but often neglected component in writing a scientific article. Logical flow in the text and main sections of a scientific article enhances the presentation of key results and the whole story of the article with clarity and depth. It allows the reader to grasp the key message of the article with speed and ease, facilitating the valuable exchange of ideas.

    Notes

    Disclosure:The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

    Author Contributions:

    • Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

    • Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

    • Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

    • Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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