Traditional Ecological Farming Practices in the Eastern Himalayan Mountain Environment: Case of a Naga Village, Nagaland (India)

The farming systems practised by the tribal communities in the mountain environment of the North-Eastern region of India are eco-friendly and local climate responsive. These play a significant role in ensuring food security and conserving the local agro-ecological diversity. These farming practices are rooted in the local ecological set up, and they of the Khonoma village of Kohima district, Nagaland, the study village, have been traditionally practising unique Alder tree-based jhum (shifting) cultivation, terrace-based panikheti (wet cultivation) and kitchen gardening based on their Indigenous knowledge and skills. They have been practising mixed farming by integrating crops, fish and livestock. The local communities have also evolved some methods for managing the natural settings to sustain their agriculture and livelihoods. This study is an attempt to investigate the methods of traditional farming system of Khonoma, a mountain village in the Eastern Himalayas. This study is based on primary data/ information collected through household survey using semi-structured household survey schedule, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), focus group discussion (FGD), and interviews with key informants and personal field visit in early 2021. The terrace-based panikheti, adopted by the people of Khonoma village, has been proved a location specific eco-friendly method for soil and water conservation. The Alder tree-based jhum practice, as opined by the villagers, is a sustainable livelihood option in the context of the mountain ecological setting and unique cultural values of the people.

chemicals, HYV seeds and irrigation in modern agriculture temporarily triggers the productivity of certain crops, but their impact on the ecosystem and peasant society is far reaching (Altieri and Koohafkan, 2008;Conway, 1987).Modern agricultural practices have now proved to be responsible for the degradation of the associated ecology, declining natural fertility of soil, depletion of ground water (Shetty, Ayyappan and Swaminathan, 2013), loss of local crop diversity, and disappearance of agriculture related cultural attributes (Deka and Bhagabati, 2010;Gliessman, 2007).In comparison to diversified cropping and integrated farming, monocropping is given more importance in the modern farming taken over by external agencies and, thus, agriculture has become increasingly capital intensive (Dorin, 2022).Thus the modern agricultural methods, where substantial amount of money is needed for procuring agricultural inputs and implements, have posed a challenge to the farmers, particularly the small and marginal farmers, in the developing countries.These challenges have become more and more acute under the influence of climatic change and other associated phenomena.These are now facing frequent crop loss due to some climate related phenomena like drought, floods and other extreme weather events and certain newly appeared diseases, pests and insects.
Traditional agro-ecosystem in the marginal environment provides various ecosystem goods and services such as regulation of soil and water quality, biological pest control, pollination, support to biodiversity, etc. for sustaining the life and livelihoods of the local communities (Power, 2010;Gauchan et al., 2020;Sharma and Rai, 2012).The diverse agriculture and the associated Indigenous knowledge and skills practised by the Indigenous communities across the world have been reckoned essential climate resilient agriculture (Bisht, 2021;Erisman et al., 2016;Mekbib et al., 2017).Diversification of agriculture by integrating crops, livestock and fishes is considered as an important strategy to adapt to the climate change risk (Aiman Raza, 2007;Altieri and Koohafkan, 2008;Karki, Burton, and Mackey, 2020).It has been observed that many traditional crop varieties under traditional farming methods have higher productivity, nutritive value and give stable production (Bisht, 2021;DeLonge, Miles and Carlisle, 2016;Maikhuri, Rao and Saxena, 1996.;Khumairoh et al., 2021) and resistance to pests and diseases (Mulumba et al., 2012).Moreover, the ecological farming practices are very rich in agrobiodiversity, which ensures stable production and food and nutritional security (Erisman et al., 2016;Swaminathan, 1986).Unlike modern agriculture, the traditional farming is based on organic inputs, biological pest management system, local crop varieties, selfseed conservation and locally invented soil and water management systems.Therefore, these farming practices are considered as ecologically sustainable, economically viable and culturally acceptable (Deka, 2012;Sharma and Rai, 2012).It also provides scope for development of agro-and ecotourism as an alternative opportunity for livelihood (Amloy et al., 2024;Ba et al., 2018).
Several studies claimed that the rate of environmental destruction in primitive methods of subsistence farming like shifting cultivation is very limited than the monoculture of plantation farming (Henley, 2011;Morton, Borah and Edwards, 2020).In shifting cultivation, farmers maintain forest cover by a short cropping period and long fallow phase for forest regeneration (Kerkhoff and Sharma, 2006).The long fallow period has high potential for carbon sequestration and forest recovery (Thong et al., 2020) and also helps in maintaining organic carbon and nitrogen stocks in soil (Terefe and Kim, 2020).
The tribal communities inhabiting the Himalayan mountain environment of North-East India have been practising some Indigenous farming systems (IFS) such as paddy-cum-fish farming of Apatani community of Arunachal Pradesh, bamboo drip irrigation-based farming in Meghalaya, wet rice cultivation in Assam, Zabo irrigation-based wet rice cultivation in Nagaland, and so on.Shifting cultivation, locally called jhum, is one of the dominant forms of agriculture practiced in the hilly areas of this region.Several studies show that the shifting cultivation practices of North-East India is rich in crop diversity (Asati and Yadav, 2014;Payum et al., 2021).Alder-based Jhum cultivation, terrace-based Panikheti and kitchen gardening of Khonoma village in Nagaland are century-old ecological farming practices where the farmers developed unique system for soil, water and agrobiodiversity conservation based on their Indigenous knowledge and skills (KTDB 2009;Roy, Debnath and Nautiyal, 2020).

Objective of the Study
This study has been carried out with the following objectives: 1. To investigate nature and types of traditional farming practices and crop cycles developed by the Indigenous communities based on the local climate, ecology and indigenous knowledge system.2. To study the traditional strategies adopted by the hill farmers for soil conservation and water management in different farming practices.

Geographical Background of the Village
This study has been carried out in a typical Naga village called Khonoma, located in Sechü-Zubza sub-division of Kohima district, Nagaland (Figure 1).The village is located at 25 0 39 ' 21.20'' N latitude and 94 0 1 ' 18.27 '' E longitude at a distance of 20 km from Kohima town and around 80 km from Dimapur town.It is surrounded by Jotsoma village on the north, and Mezoma village on the west.Being located at the foothill of the Barail range, the village is a part of the Eastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot (Chase and Singh, 2012).The physiography of the village is hilly ranging from gentle slope to steep rugged hillsides.The village is drained by a small stream called Dzüza and its tributary Khurü forming a valley plain with moderate slope.The average elevation of the Khonoma is around 1,455 m from the mean sea level.
The area receives an annual rainfall of 2,000 to 2,500 mm and most of the rainfall occurs during May to September.The area experiences cold and winter season from October to March.Temperature varies from 15 0 C to 30 0 C during summer and 5 0 C to 25 0 C during winter.The village is inhabited by the Angami Naga tribe.It has 424 households with a total population of 1,943 as per 2011 Census.The old people reported that the village is about 700 years old.The village is divided into three clans, called Khel-Merhüma (M-Khel), Semoma (S-Khel) and Thevoma (T-Khel).Literacy rate is 83.41%, which is higher than illage is rich in forest resources, agriculture is the main source of livelihood of the people.

Methods
Descriptive and qualitative methods were followed in conducting this study.Data were collected through purposively designed household survey schedule, intensive field observation, interviews and focus group discussion (FGD) with the local communities following Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach (Figure 2).Household survey was conducted covering 50 selected households (12% of total households) during the month of February 2021.Simple random sampling procedure was followed for the selection of households.Out of the total respondents, 60% were males and 40% were females.In addition to household survey, several stakeholders, including Secretary of Khonoma Village Development Board (BDV), members of women self-lub were interviewed.Participatory resource map of the village has been prepared to understand the agricultural land use pattern of the village and the associated problems.Local people were asked to draw their village map on the ground.They drew the map on the ground using sticks and placed different colour powder (ranguli) to indicate agricultural lands (both the terrace fields, jhum fields), irrigation canals, kitchen gardens, fish ponds, forests etc. of their village.After the completion of drawing, a stick was handover to a senior participant to explain their village map.A transact walk was performed along with the farmers in order to verify the prepared map with the existing agricultural land use pattern and the associated problems.A small group consisting of 6-7 villagers, including the village headman and women farmers, were asked to participate in the transact walk in order to investigate the Indigenous land use pattern and its relations with the existing irrigation system, soil quality, forest cover and regenerated forest growth after jhum (shifting cultivation) cycle completed.
A crop calendar was prepared with the help of villagers to study the seasonal cycle of crop farming and associated agriculture activities in Khonoma.A chart was drawn on the ground with the time scale (month wise) in horizontal direction and the type of agriculture, crops and farming activities on the vertical axis.The participants were asked to place some materials such as stones, stick, etc. on the ground chart as per the activities required during different season for jhum cultivation, terrace farming and kitchen gardening different months.

Socio-economic Condition of the Village
The household level data on socio-economic background of the farmers, farming types, land size, farm income and food security of the farmers of the village provide an idea about the farming practices and its role on the livelihood sustainability of the villagers.The sample survey shows that only 4% of the total households of the village are engaged in the service sector and the rest 96% is in agriculture.Average family size of the sample households is 6 persons.Among the sample households, as many as 127 members are found to get involved continuously in agriculture where 73 (57.48%) are female farmers clearly indicating the dominant role played by the females in farming.During the offfarm season (January-February), some farmers are engaged in other activities like wage labour (14%), basketry (8%), honey collection (4%), driving (4%), masonry (6%), weaving (10%), gardening (4%) and petty vending (7%).It is also found that 66% of the surveyed households have livestock, mainly piggery and poultry.Table 1 gives a brief description of the methods of farming in Khonoma village.It has been reported that the majority of the households (86%) of Khonoma village are self-sufficient in food production for the entire year, while 14% households need to purchase rice for some months of the year.

Agricultural System
The natural landscapes of Khonoma have been used by the villagers through generations based on their Indigenous knowledge and skills; and, as such, they have developed a sustainable land use system (Figure 3).The farming system operated by the villagers facilitated conservation as well as sustainable use of the natural resources.Three distinctive agricultural systems namely, alder based jhum, terrace farming and kitchen gardening are observed in the village.
The cropping cycle of each of the farming systems is closely associated with the rhythm of monsoonal rain (Figure 4).Jhum cultivation begins in winter season (December-January) with the process of slash and burn.Sowing of seeds starts during pre-monsoon period (April-May).The Eastern Himalayan region generally receive good amount of rainfall during the pre-monsoon period, which favours the growth of jhum crops.Transplantation of wet rice is done during the month of June-July.Post-monsoon is the season of harvesting when the farmers remain busy in harvesting crops from both the jhum and terrace fields.Cropping during the winter season is very limited due to scarcity of water in the hill slopes.Vegetables are grown in the kitchen gardens and some parts of the terrace fields with the help traditional system of irrigation.
There is no use of modern agricultural inputs and implements in farming carried out in the village.Human labour provided by the family members is the villagers have their own method of seed conservation.Only a small section of the farmers is found to purchase seeds of certain crops such as potato, carrot, cabbage, etc. from the market.The villagers follow a unique land tenure system.
Lands used both for terrace and jhumming are owned individually.The farmers have no land records and they do not follow any standard land measurement.
Most of the farmers have agricultural land both for jhumming and terracing.Every household on an average have 3.3 terraced plots and 2.4 jhum plots.The size of plots in terracing is very small as compared to the jhum fields.It is noteworthy here that the decision for selection of land for jhum cultivation, irrigation management, etc. is taken by the people collectively.The Himalayan Alder tree (Alnus nepalensis) naturally grows throughout the Himalayan countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, India, Myanmar and China (Kehie, Khamu and Kehie, 2017).Several studies have shown that the A. nepalensis has been widely used in traditional agroforestry system for hill slope land management and soil conservation (Huber, Matiu, and Hülsbergen, 2018;Rana et al., 2018).This tree hosts nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which help in enhancing soil fertility (Kehie, Khamu and Kehie, 2017;Rana et al., 2018;Rathore, Karunakaran, and Prakash, 2010;Sharma et al., 2008).
Alder tree-based agroforestry, mixed with various commercial crops like cardamom, oranges, tea, etc., has been found economically helpful for the farmers (Mortimer et al., 2015;Sharma et al., 2002).The Himalayan Alder is also a native plant to Khonoma village, which grows at an elevation of above 1,000 metres.The luxuriant growth of Alder trees in the mountains provides necessary base for the development of a unique system of shifting cultivation.
Unlike the traditional jhum cultivation of North-East India, the villagers of Khonoma practise jhum cultivation in a different way.They cultivate a number of crops integrating with the Alder tree (Cairns, Keitzar and Yaden, 2010).
Before or after the slash and burn operation, the Alder trees are pollarded at the height of 2 meters from the ground.The vertical growth of the tree is restricted by pollarding the main trunk, leaving only few branches for apical growth.This practice not only keeps the crops underneath the trees from being shaded but also provides the benefit of fuel wood and organic manure.They use the pollarded branches as firewood and timber and the leaves and ashes of small tree branches as manure.As the growth of Alder tree is very fast, the branches become mature enough for jhumming within 5-6 years from the time of pollarding.Therefore, the farmers of this village can manage their jhum cycle within 5-6 sites of the forest patches without destroying the new forest lands.It is estimated that more than 80% of the firewood requirement of the village is met from the trees obtained from the jhum fields, which greatly reduces the pressure on the natural forest for firewood.Thus, the Alder-based jhum cultivation in Khonoma village sets a unique instance of ecological farming which, unlike the common jhum practice, does not cause forest loss and ecological imbalance in the mountain landscape of the Eastern Himalayas.The villagers usually follow 5-6 years jhum cycle.After the pollardition and clearance of forests, they cultivate the land for two consecutive years.During this time, the growth of pollarded tree branches is restricted by cutting them carefully, and then for the next 3-4 years these are allowed to grow freely during the fallow period (Figure 5).Thus, the tree branches get enough time to grow and produce wood within the 5-6 years of jhum cycle.The farmers of Nagaland have also been practising various Indigenous soil conservation techniques for jhum land management (Singh, Devi and Singh, 2016).Usually during the rainy season, top soil of jhum fields, which contain enormous nutrients, gets eroded by the surface runoff (Yadav et al., 2006).To check such top soil erosion the villagers of Khonoma adopt the technique of contour bund using locally available natural materials such as stones, tree branches, log, bamboo, etc.The series of parallel as well as random bunds constructed by them across the hill slope minimize the speed of surface runoff and thus help in soil conservation.
The process of jhum cultivation begins with the clearing of forests by pollarding the Alder tree branches in the months of December and January.In January, they collect the dried branches for firewood and burn the slash (Figure 5).The activities such as digging of land for ploughing, mixing of ash and final preparation for sowing seeds are done in February and in the month of March generally seeds are sown.A number of crops such as potato, maize, bean, yam, pumpkin, cabbage, gourd, cucumber, etc. are grown together as mix-cropping.
Coix lacryma-jobi L.) is sown in the month of April.Thus, the farmers apply intercropping methods in jhumming.July-August is the main harvesting season.In the second year, the same fields are used for cultivation of various cereal crops such as millet, sesame, etc.At present, farmers of the village have started cultivating large cardamom in some selected jhum fields

Terrace Farming
Like other communities of Nagaland, the Angami Naga farmers of Khnoma village have also some specific terraces for wet rice cultivation.Based on their Indigenous ecological knowledge and skills they have developed the terrace landscape in the valleys of the Dzüza and Khurü streams.These valleys are surrounded by hills and forests playing a significant role in the terrace farming.Besides these main streams, there are several small streams and springs originating from these hills, which provide necessary water to the fields.The soil characteristics and water quality of the terrace fields of the village are largely influenced by the natural forests around.Residual ash and other organic materials from jhum fields of the surrounding hills are drained to the valley to enhance the soil fertility.Therefore, the terrace fields adjacent to the hills have rich humus content that favours luxuriant growth of the crops.Based on the location the terrace fields of the village are divided into 14 units and each unit is identified with specific name like Ketsazhu, Keyafa Phi, Kenofú, Kelizü, Tehuphi, Chadaphi, Jüpfüzhu, Rülie liezú, Kerükhú, Nyúzekú, Púcha, Púgú, Mechakha, and Sikha liezú.Among these fields, Ketsazhu, Kerükhú, Chadaphi and Kenofú are the cold water fields, meaning the water of these fields remain cool as these are shadowed by the forests of the hills.Wet terraced paddy is the major crop of the village.The farmers cultivate various traditional rice varieties depending upon the suitability land (Table 2).In the cold-water fields, they plant the varieties suitable for cold-water environment.Similarly, the fields where the surface water becomes relatively hot due to direct sunshine insolation the villagers cultivate certain rice varieties that can tolerate warm water.Thus, the farmers of the Khonoma have been preserving several traditional rice varieties through generations.Each rice variety has unique aromatic and morphological characteristics.In Khonoma village, as many as 20 local varieties of rice have been in use.The farmers are very sincere in conserving the seeds of the local rice varieties.The farmers also collect seeds from other farmers of the village or the neighbouring villages in exchange to their seeds.They do not use any kind of chemical fertilizer and pesticides.Cow dung, pig dung, chicken privy, rice husk and ash are mainly used in the terrace fields as manure.

Mixed crop in jhum field
The farmers begin the process of field preparation in the months of December and January by ploughing the lands, which thereafter involve different stages of cultivation (Table 3).During February and March, they level the surface of the field by breaking the large pieces of soil called Chickro and then keep the field fallow until the arrival of monsoon.In the meantime, during January-February, the seedlings are raised in the fields over adjacent high lands adjacent.Irrigation canals are cleared with the onset of monsoon and water is drained to the fields during April-May.The sides of the plots are plastered with soil paste to prevent water leakage except for the outlet point.The surface soil is turned and mixed so that the weeds get decomposed.Then the soil is levelled and bunds are plastered finally.During June-July, the rice seedlings are transplanted.Weeding is done after two-three weeks of transplantation.In October, again weeding is done before harvesting the crops.Some paddy fields are used for cultivation of potato, garlic and other vegetables during the rabi (December-March) season (Figure 6).However, large parts of the terrace fields remain fallow during this period due to scarcity of water.The farmers have traditionally developed a type of irrigation and water management system in their terraced wet paddy fields, which they call Panikheti.
They channelize the hill stream water by constructing earthen canals and irrigate the terrace fields.The excess amount of water is transferred from one plot to khupo (bunds).
Bamboo pipes are commonly used for inter-field water supply.It is found that about 1/3 rd of the terraced plots receive irrigation water throughout the year and remained wet, while other plots remained dry during the winter season.The plots, which receive water throughout the year, are more productive than the other plots.Ponds/ fisheries are most common in the terrace fields of the village.The farmers keep one or two lha (plot) of their wet plots as a pond for rearing fish and irrigating crops in the dry season (Figure 7).During June-July, the farmers release fish fingerlings in some paddy fields and harvest during October-November after the harvest of paddy.The farmers get extra benefits from the integration of fish farming in the paddy fields.It increases the soil fertility (adding nitrogen) and provides additional benefit to the farmers (Halwart, 1998;Saikia and Das, 2008).Some studies show that the rice yield is higher in fish-cum-paddy fields than the normal paddy fields (Lu and Li, 2006;Tsuruta et al., 2011).In addition to pisciculture, the practice of apiculture (rearing of bee) is very common in the terrace fields of Khonoma.The farmers of Khonoma have skill of making beehives boxes by using tree trunks.They keep the beehive boxes on the bunds of terrace fields for honeybee and, thus, get honey as an additional product.Thus, the farmers have skilfully used the bunds of the terrace fields for productive purposes.

Kitchen Garden
Kitchen gardening is also very common among the people of Khonoma village.Besides jhum and terrace fields, the vegetable farming is done in the small kitchen gardens located close to the residential areas.Average size of the kitchen gardens varies from 0.012-0.017acre.As the agricultural fields, both jhum fields and terraces are far from the residential area, the villagers cultivate various vegetables for their daily consumption (Figure 8).The villagers cultivate different season vegetables such as cabbage, king chilli, tomato, chayote, spinach, mustard leaf, ginger, garlic, onion, eggplant, potato, yam, pumpkin, etc. in their kitchen gardens.Like jhum and terrace fields, the farming methods in kitchen gardens are purely organic.Fire wood ash gardens.Kitchen gardens are mostly rain fed and sometime they irrigated from their households.The women are mostly taking care about the kitchen gardens.As the plots are tiny and much closed to residential area, they can nurture more intensely.

Conclusion
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the indigenous Angami Naga tribal community of Khonoma village of Nagaland has successfully adopted micro-level location specific strategies for farming and maintaining sustainable agriculture practices.Their farming practices are not only ecologically adaptive but also economically sustainable.Except manual labour, capital investment for other input budgets are very negligible.The villagers do not use any chemical fertilizers and pesticides in their farmland.
The Alder-based shifting cultivation of the village demonstrates the effective use and conservation of forest and soil by limiting the process of deforestation.The practice of integrated pisciculture and apiculture in the wet terrace paddy fields of the village is a sustainable and effective for land and water management in the hilly environment.All the farming practices of the village are cost effective and the farmers are self-sufficient in terms of seeds, manure, etc. Maintenance of crop diversity through their age-old farming practices not only helps in conservation of agrobiodiversity but also provide scope for adaptation and development of climate resilient agriculture.
In the present context of climate change, rapid environmental degradation and forest cover loss, the traditional farming system practiced by the ethnic communities of the ecologically sensitive mountain areas of the Eastern Himalayas set a good example of sustainable agro-ecosystem evolved locally by the people of the area.The traditional agricultural knowledge and skills of the Indigenous communities that they developed through generations have, of late, attracted attention of the ecologists, agricultural scientists and environmentalists because of the negative effect of the modern agriculture on the environment.This Alder based jhum and terraced paddy cultivation if diffused to other parts of the Eastern Himalayan region, may help in mitigating the problem of environmental degradation on the one hand and ensuring the livelihood sustainability of the mountain-dwellers on the other.

Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, under Climate Change Programme -National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (Grant No. DST/CCP/MRDP/191/2019 Dated 18/03/2020).The authors are grateful to Gauhati University for providing a conducive environment for preparing the manuscript during the period of research work.Special thanks go to Mrs. Moonmon Googoi and Miss Thejanguno Peseyie for their help in field survey.The authors are also thankful to the villagers of Khonoma village, Nagaland for their generous support in collecting primary information.

References
Aiman Raza, S. (2007) The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved any human subject (body or organs) for experimentation.It was not a clinical research.The contexts of human population/participation were only indirectly covered through literature review.Therefore, an Ethical Clearance (from a Committee or Authority) or ethical obligation of Helsinki Declaration does not apply in cases of this study or written work.

Research involving animals (ARRIVE Checklist)
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved any animal subject (body or organs) for experimentation.The research was not based on laboratory experiment involving any kind animal.The contexts of animals were only indirectly covered through literature review.Therefore, an Ethical Clearance (from a Committee or Authority) or ethical obligation of ARRIVE does not apply in cases of this study or written work.

Research on Indigenous Peoples and/or Traditional Knowledge
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has involved Indigenous Peoples as participants or respondents.The contexts of Indigenous Peoples or Indigenous Knowledge were also indirectly covered through literature review.Therefore, copy of a Consent Form and a Self-Declaration in this regard are appended along with this article.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Location of Khonoma village in Nagaland

Figure 2 :
Figure 2: Focus group discussion and interview (Photo Credit: Sourav Saha)

Figure 3 :
Figure 3: Pattern of Land use and land cover of the study village 5.3 Alder-Based jhum FarmingThe Himalayan Alder tree (Alnus nepalensis) naturally grows throughout

Figure 5 :
Figure 5: Alder based jhum farming practices at Khonoma village (Photo Credit: Sourav Saha) Note: A-Alder tree in fallow jhum field; B-Burning after pollarding; C-Soil protection bund suing stone; D-Tree branches lying on hill slope to minimize flow speed and top soil erosion; E-Branches growing out after pollarding; F-

Figure 6 :Figure 8 :
Figure 6: Terrace fields during kharif (A,B) and rabi (C,D) season (Photo Credit: Sourav Saha) Research involving PlantsThe author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has involved the plants for experiment or field studies.Some contexts of plants are also indirectly covered through literature review.Thus, during this research the author(s) obeyed the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on the Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.Research Involving Local Community Participants (Non-Indigenous) or Children The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has directly involved local community participants or respondents belonging to non-Indigenous peoples.However, this study did not involve any child in any form directly.The contexts of different humans, people, populations, men/women/children and ethnic people are also indirectly covered through literature review.A sample copy of the Consent Form implying prior informed consent (PIC) of the respondents is appended.(Optional)PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)The author(s) has/have NOT complied with PRISMA standards.It is not relevant in case of this study or written work.Competing Interests/Conflict of InterestAuthor(s) has/have no competing financial, professional, or personal interests from other parties or in publishing this manuscript.There is no conflict of interest with the publisher or the editorial team or the reviewers.Attribution and Representation institutions they represent.The publisher is also not responsible either for such opinions and mistakes in the text or graphs or images.Rights and PermissionsOpen Access.This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.The images or other third-party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.*** To see original copy of these declarations signed by Corresponding/First Author (on behalf of other co-authors too), please download associated zip folder [Declarations] from the published Abstract page accessible through and linked with the DOI: https://doi.org/10.33002/aa030203.

Table 1 :
Households involved in different methods of cultivation

Table 2 :
Traditional rice varieties cultivated in Khonoma village Source: Focus group discussion with the farmers of Khonoma, 24February 2021