Concepts, Models, and Research of Extended Education

: Extended education flourishes all over the world. Within different cultures and sociopolitical backgrounds, it takes different terms, forms, and developments across nations. Without identifying the common concepts of extended education, we may not expect further developments in extended education research. This study examined the terms that are used to describe extended education in each country. Research focus was given to the kind of connotations the terms contain – in what ways the terms are perceived. Given that extended education in each nation has its own heritage and histo-ricity, the study also suggested four extended education development models. The four models mainly concern the origin of extended education – for what reasons a certain type of extended education was introduced and developed as a legitimate educational arrangement. Finally, this current study attempted to explore the common features and concepts of extended education as an area of education research and academic discipline.


Introduction: Concepts and Research of Extended Education
The goal of all science is to better understand the world in which we live.No matter what fields researchers are engaged in, one of their ultimate goals is to find general explanations to phenomena that interest them.In other words, researchers conduct scientific studies to establish and develop "theories" in their respective areas.
Theory is a set of interconnected concepts, assumptions, and propositions that serves to describe and explain regularities and predict the future as much as possible (Kerlinger, 1986).Concepts are the core component of theories.Therefore, it is not surprising that researchers begin to explore concepts related to their research topics before they establish hypotheses or assumptions to be investigated and tested.
Concepts are by nature abstract.They are expressed by terms, i.e., words, which generally contain certain connotations.For a better understanding of concepts, therefore, it is essential to have a good grasp of the meaning of terms particularly in the real-world setting.Nonetheless, it is true that due to abstractness and simplicity neither concepts nor terms alone are enough to describe and explain reality.In addition, the meaning of terms is social-ly constructed and institutionalized.Once it is constructed, people tend to maintain the way of understanding and interpreting the meaning of the terms.It is treated like social norms.
Another feature of concepts is that they manifest heritage and contain "historicity."In other words, concepts are a product of history.Consequently, to explore the meaning of concepts, it is essential to understand the social context and historical background in which the concepts are established, used, and interpreted.
The notions discussed above hold true for research in extended education.Although "extended education" was created as an umbrella term, its features and manifestations are greatly diverse and dynamic across nations.Each nation and region has developed its own extended education in response to its unique social, political, and educational needs.Even though the concept of extended education is shared among scholars and practitioners, the terms and names used to describe it vary greatly among countries -e.g., programs, activities, offering.To summarize, extended education in each country has its own heritage, historicity, social background, and therefore, name.
Extended education has become one of the fastest growing fields in education systems.During the past few decades, there have been an increasing number of studies in this area.However, as mentioned earlier, extended education in each country and region has evolved with its own term, historicity, and social background.A variety of programs exists from early childhood to adult education levels.Such diverse and dynamic nature of extended education is the most fascinating aspect of research in this area.However, it is also true that research in extended education may not progress further if we fail to conceptualize its meaning and scope.
The purpose of this paper is threefold.First, this study set out to investigate the terms that indicate extended education in each country and region.The cases of nine countries and regions were examined -Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, England, Sweden, The US, Hong Kong, Japan, and Korea.Research focus was given to the kind of connotations the terms contain, intentionally or unintentionally, and why they were chosen.Second, the extended education development models were suggested.As stated earlier, extended education in each nation has its own heritage and historicity coupled with social, political, and educational backgrounds.In this context, the models were suggested to present the reasons for which a certain type of extended education was introduced and developed as one of the legitimate educational arrangements.Theories were examined to support each model.Third, this study attempted to explore the common features of extended education.By doing so, the study aimed to conceptualize extended education as a topic or an area of research.

Terms for Extended Education
To conduct research about extended education, it is necessary to understand the terms that explain and describe the concept to be studied.It is particularly true when international comparative studies are performed.This is because each nation has developed its own terms, which contain certain connotations and heritage.By examining them, we may learn what purposes and perspective are overtly and covertly incorporated and embedded in their practices and policies implemented under the name of extended education.
There are a variety of terms used to describe extended education and related phenomena across each nation and culture.Among many, this study examined three themes that help understand the institutional features of extended education.

Out-of-school time (OST)
"Out-of-school time (OST)" is one of the most widely used terms employed to explain the concepts of extended education.OST suggests that learning and developmental opportunities provided by extended education may take place outside the typical school day.More specifically, the scope of OST includes before school, after school, weekends, or seasonal breaks.Among them, afterschool programs are the most prevalent in many countries such as Korea and the US (Bae & Jeon, 2013;Mahoney, 2016).
The term OST reflects independence and difference from the conventional public schooling and regular classes in terms of when, what, how, and where children and youth learn.Therefore, it is a particularly narrow understanding of OST to only emphasize the difference in time (when) and place (where) between OST and the traditional education setting.The term OST incorporates the concept of expanded learning in terms of the goal and content of learning (what and why) and way of teaching (how).Accordingly, it is obvious that the wide use of the term OST contributed to developing a broader concept of learning and development among education researchers.Meanwhile, the OST activity trend may be understood in relation to the liberalist tradition of education philosophy.The underlying ideas of OST may be "resisting educational standards and preserving local control of education" (Labaree, 2000).Since a great deal of research has revealed that a major reason for the achievement gap among different socio-economic status groups is the availability of opportunities to learn and develop outside the regular school time, greater policy support is given to OST activities and programs, particularly for students at risk (Mahoney, 2016).

Activities vs. Programs vs. Offering
Extended education in most countries employs one of these three terms.However, the connotations of each term differ.Compared to "programs," the term "activities" implicitly shows the participant-oriented nature of extended education and often anticipates the "accidental learning" of children.Examples are summer camp, play, sport club, arts club, and leisure time activities.The most frequently cited theory supporting children-centered extended education activities might be the positive youth development theory (Benson, Scales, Hamilton, & Sesma, 2006).Those who support this idea also tend to believe that playing and having free time outside school time, although provided with the supervision of adult professionals, are considered children's right.Meaning making from the activities is emphasized.A case in point is the school-age childcare services provided at leisure-time centers in Sweden (Narvanen & Elvstrand, 2015;Klerfelt & Haglund, 2014).
However, when researchers, practitioners, and parents use "programs," the term tends to emphasize pedagogically designed and instruction-engaged practices often having clearly specified goals.In other words, in comparison to the term "activities," the term "programs" contains the connotation of "intentionality," indicating that extended education pursues certain goals accomplished by collaboration between students and qualified professionals.It is also notable that "programs" generally consist of a series of learning processes or steps, not a one-time event.The afterschool program in Korea is one of typical cases.For instance, in many countries, afterschool programs have been introduced as an educational reform initiative for responding to students' diverse needs and changing educational environment.In most cases, they began to promote the academic achievement of students, particularly students at risk.In recent years, however, they are implemented for wider purposes such as the socio-emotional development, health, and well-being of students.
When it comes to "offering," the oxford dictionary defines it as "a thing offered, especially as a gift or contribution."With this definition, it may be perceived as a provider-led initiative even though it does not intend to deliver the sense of "provider-oriented intervention."While "activities" are more likely to be student-centered service, "offering" has the connotation of a school-centered approach.Further investigations on the origin of this term may be of interest.
Finally, whether it is called activities, programs, or offering, what is important is that they are not part of the regular curriculum, and they are offered outside the school hours.In addition, the providers include not only schools but also a variety of private vendors.

Extended schools and Expanded schools
Whereas the two terms, activities and programs, pursue student-centered educational and recreational arrangements, the other two terms, "extended schools" and "expanded schools," are related to the new trend about the wider roles of public schools.They have been introduced in England and the US respectively as one of the education reform initiatives that encourages local schools to extend and expand time, space, and responsibility in response to the increasing and diverse needs of students, families, and the community (Dyson & Jones, 2014).In this case, schools are expected to actively interact with the community.Advocates suggest that these schools would contribute to "comprehensive school reforms that restructure the school day" (Mahoney, 2014, p. 64).
Accordingly, this concept of extended education emphasizes the strong partnership and mutually beneficial relationships between schools and the community.In the case of East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan, this idea has been developed in relation to the movement in education toward school-community collaboration (Bae & Kanefuji, 2018) and "the Village-based Education Community (Kim, 2015)."Place-based education (Sobel, 2005), community based learning (Kim, 2015), and area-based learning (Kerr & Dyson, 2014) may also be included in the concept of extended schools that aim to take advantage of a community's local educational assets to promote the learning and development of children and youth.

Private supplementary tutoring (Shadow education)
Undoubtedly, private supplementary tutoring, also known as shadow education, is a major part of extended education.It has been widely examined as a dominant education system because it has huge impact on individual participants as well as the entire society in terms of educational equality and excellence, as the mainstream formal education system does.Researchers (Bray, 2013;Bray & Lykins, 2012;Mori & Baker, 2010) contend that it is becoming increasingly normative and is being institutionalized across many societies.It was explored as a major educational phenomenon in East Asia but is currently viewed as a global phenomenon.According to Bray (2013), it has three distinctive features compared to the formal education in public schools.The first feature is "supplementation," indicating that tutoring covers subjects that are already taught in schools.The second is "privateness," which suggests that tutoring is offered by private vendors and individuals for profit-making purposes.The last is "academic subject-focused," meaning that its main purpose is to help participants raise their test scores in academic subjects and compete for better grades and entrance to prestigious institutions.It differs from other kinds of extended education programs that aim to promote the growth and development of children and youth and contribute to the shaping of educational and social values such as equality of education, family support, community development, and social cohesion.

Extended Education Development Models
Extended education has evolved with the historical and social context of each society.For a better understanding of practices and research in the area of extended education, it is crucial to examine what has driven extended education in each respective nation and region.Simply speaking, the origin of extended education shapes the current policies, practices, and research trends.Based on the extensive and critical review of the related literature, four development models are suggested in this paper.They are not mutually exclusive but are partly associated with one another.

School reform-driven model
In this model, extended education is considered as an education reform initiative.This model shows that it has been developed to address the public concerns about the problems of public schools -particularly the less open and less flexible regular curriculum.One example is the afterschool programs in Korea that were introduced to promote studentcentered education (Bae & Jeon, 2013).Another example is the extended schools in England that were initiated to extend the role of schools in the support for children, families, and the community (Dyson & Jones, 2014).In recent years, it has been greatly emphasized by education reformers to help students cultivate key competencies for citizens in the age of digital transformation and therefore to introduce the innovative approaches in teaching and learning to public education.Among the many school reform initiatives, the one observed with the keenest interest by policy makers across nations has been extended education which has great potential for adopting and implementing innovative ideas, approaches, and practices.In this model, extended education has been generally developed and implemented by top-down approaches with strong government leadership and financial support.However, the frequently reported problem is the lack of autonomy at the local and school levels.In addition, greater attention is given not only to its own educational values but also to societal needs.Research topics include a) the effectiveness of extended education programs as a public policy, b) the relationship between extended education programs and the regular curriculum, c) efficient management of extended education program implementation, and d) building a model to promote cooperative relations between schools and the community.Useful and related concepts are policy effectiveness, policy evaluation, the community school, professional development, etc. Related theories and academic disciplines may include economics of education, institutionalization, educational administration, public policy theories, etc.

Youth development-driven model
In this model, extended education is understood as a means for helping local children and youth develop their skills, aptitudes, and talents -e.g., leadership, communication, decision-making, self-esteem, dependability, and personal control.Extended education programs have been generally developed and maintained by local professionals, activists, and the community.These programs originally started with the principle of local autonomy on what and how to educate their children.However, in recent years, government support is increasingly requested due to financial reasons.Good examples are OST activities in the US and leisure time activities in Nordic countries (Klerfelt & Haglund, 2014).Research topics may include a) the effectiveness of programs and activities on the developmental outcomes of participants, b) participation patterns among different socio-economic status groups, and c) gaps in developmental outcomes among groups with different backgrounds.Related concepts and theories include human development, positive youth development, human capital investment, and psychometric assessment and measurement.

Social needs-driven model
This development model implies that extended education, as a social institution, is part of the ecology of the entire society.In this case, extended education is expected to deal with the social needs and other environmental factors of the community (Dyson & Jones, 2014).In recent years, the kinds of extended education that meet these societal needs are increasing.Examples include language programs for immigrant and minority students, child-care services for dual income families, summer camp for students who are left behind, etc.With the growing number of immigrants, increasing social disparity, and widening achievement gaps among groups, extended education is gaining greater popularity among policymakers in many countries (for the case of Germany, see Fischer, Theis, & Zuchner, 2014; for the case of England, see Kerr & Dyson, 2014).In addition, it is also said that the growing extended education opportunities contribute to the creation of jobs in this sector.Related research topics include a) the effectiveness of extended education implementation on social outcomes at the regional and national levels, b) the educational and developmental needs of underprivileged students, and c) the participation patterns of disadvantaged students.Related concepts and theories may be education welfare, cultural assimilation and acculturation, child-care, critical theory, and labor market theory.

Social reproduction-driven model
Extended education in this model is understood as a vehicle for social reproduction.This model points out that extended education has been developed based on the belief in upward mobility through education, and affluent families may have better access to quality extended education programs that help their children enhance academic achievement.According to researchers, this type of extended education is being institutionalized worldwide (Mori & Baker, 2010;Bray & Lykins, 2012).The best examples are private supplementary tutoring and cram schools.They are now known as "shadow education" (see Bray, 2013).Research topics include a) extended education as social reproduction strategies of families, b) the effects of extended education participation pattern on mobility variables, c) participation patterns and gaps among different SES groups, and d) the origin and social problems of chronic shadow education.Related concepts and theories include social reproduction theory, social and educational stratification, social mobility, social justice, cultural capital theory, and critical theory.

Concepts and Fields of Extended Education Concept
The final question is whether extended education can be considered a domain of knowledge and a field of research.From the academic point of view, whether or not a certain area of research is established and accepted as an independent academic discipline may be determined by answering three questions -1) whether there exists a distinct field to be studied in comparison to other areas, 2) whether the research community is established and active in this area, and 3) whether there exist research methodologies applicable and suitable to the field.The concepts of extended education concern the first question.
To be an area of academic research, there should be a clear and distinct area and definition for extended education.Many researchers have attempted to create a definition of extended education.However, due to the variety of goals, scopes, learning structures, and providers, a uniform definition of extended education is very challenging.However, it seems many researchers agree that extended education is not part of the regular curricular activities and is typically offered before and after school, and at locations outside of the school site.Taking this into consideration, the best approach to explain and describe extended education is to identify the common concepts that may be widely applicable to various aspects of extended education programs and activities across various nations.Conducting a comprehensive review of previous studies, Bae & Kanefuji (2018, p.30) suggested the following common and important concepts of extended education: • Intentionally organized learning and developmental programs and activities, • Incorporation of teaching and learning and/or developmental processes that typically occur between adult professionals and young participants, • Implementation outside of the allotted school time, including before school, after school, and during the summer/winter break, • Implementation in the school context -although some programs take place at locations outside of the school site, and • Participation is typically on a voluntary basis

Fields
Another way to conceptualize the institutional features of extended education as the target of education research is to identify the scope of extended education research.Figure 1 represents a conceptual framework that classifies learning opportunities that students may have by time and space.
First, it is obvious that area 1 and 4 do not belong to the genuine area of extended education.The educational activities in area 1 are based on the traditional school-based regular curriculum.Although the education programs and students' activities provided in area 4 occur outside the school buildings, they can be viewed as an extension of the regular curricula activities.Examples include field trips and sports activities as part of regular classes that usually occur outside the school.As discussed earlier, what the extended schools in England do is considered one of the extended education programs.However, it should be noted that extended schools perform their work beyond the traditional role -i.e., teaching traditional students in conventional ways at the school building -and thus, the educational programs and activities that they provide are regarded as part of extended education.
The major aspects of extended education can be found in area 2 and 3.The conceptual difference between area 2 and 3 relates to who provides and/or coordinates the programs.The educational activities and experiences in area 2 are offered outside school hours, but they are "school-based" programs."School based" can be interpreted in many ways.First, it means that the programs are run by schools.Some programs are directly offered by the schoolteachers, while others are implemented under the supervision or control of other school staff.In the latter case, schools hire or collaborate with extended education professionals to provide the various educational and developmental programs.One example is the afterschool program coordinator in Korea and Japan (Bae & Kanefuji, 2018).However, the important thing is that schools are not obliged to conduct these activities as part of either their legal mandate or ethical duties.Second, another meaning of "school based" is that whoever runs the programs, they are offered "in the school site."School-based programs in this sense are preferred by parents and students because schools have long been considered as a safe place protected from educationally harmful factors.One example is the schoolbased afterschool programs in South Korea (Bae, 2013).It is reported that more than 70 % of all Korean students participate in one or more afterschool programs as of 2016.Due to the safety and assurance of educational quality, school-based extended education programs are widely advocated by educators, policy makers, and parents.The educational arrangements in area 3 are the primary focus of extended education research.Extended education programs and activities in this area are provided and organized outside the school and outside school time.Some programs are run solely by non-school vendors such as the community-based institutions and for-profit private institutions, while others are implemented by the collaboration between the schools and external partners.The key features of extended education programs in this area include variety, flexibility, and sensitivity to the needs of customers -i.e., students and possibly residents.Compared to regular curricular activities, one distinct characteristic of extended education in this area is the governance system that is ruled by the "competition and choice paradigm," which is the major institutional feature of the "market."In this sense, it may be argued that extended education is located at the crossroad between the public education and the market systems.Meanwhile, it should be also noted that extended education ultimately pursues the learning and development of children and the youth.Accordingly, it can be justified as one of the legitimate education systems in the society.In this context, the quality and equality issues become significant and major topics of extended education research, as in the general education research setting.
Finally, another important educational activity in area 3 is private supplementary tutoring.From the sociological viewpoint, a major driving force of this activity is the desire of families for upward social mobility and reproduction, for which education is viewed as a powerful mechanism.As mentioned earlier (Bray, 2013;Bray & Lykins, 2012;Mori & Baker, 2010), it has become normative and taken for granted across many countries, particularly in East Asia.
To have a better understanding of the field of extended education research, time and place are employed as the criteria in this paper.However, it should be noted that the two factors are not the only ones to determine the scope and values of extended education research and practices.For instance, who the providers are, what contents they deal with, and how innovative they are in terms of teaching and learning are also important in determining the institutional aspect and values of extended education programs and activities.

A typology
Extended education in each country has been developed with its unique name.Despite the great deal of common features as an alternative educational arrangement, each program has been shaped per different social needs, historical background, and educational approach.For the sake of research, classification of extended education programs and activities may be possible using diverse criteria.
In this paper, extended education in each country is categorized into three types based on their major concerns and conceptions about the purpose of the programs: a) child development-focused conception, b) role of the school-focused conception, and finally c) family reproduction-focused conception.Figure 2 shows an ecology of extended education with three different focuses and cases based on their initial goals and approaches.As shown in Figure 2, one program or activity may not belong to only one category but could have multiple pursuits and purposes (e.g., afterschool program, extended schools).Given the varied nature of programs and activities, finding suitable criteria and standards for typology may be a good topic for future research.

Conclusion
Extended education flourishes all over the world.Within different cultures and sociopolitical backgrounds, it takes different terms, forms, and developments in each country and region.Accordingly, it has been developed with different concepts within each nation.Without identifying the common features and concepts of extended education, we may not expect further developments in extended education research; in addition, it would be hard to argue for extended education to be considered as a field of educational research, and the extended education research community would be jeopardized.
The concept is by nature abstract.Therefore, it is expressed by words -i.e., terms.Given that extended education has evolved interacting with the social, political, and educational environment, the terms used to describe extended education in various countries manifest their own heritage and historicity.In this sense, it is essential to understand the meaning and connotations of the terms that reflect the social and educational background of the society where extended education has developed.Meanwhile, because each society has encountered different and unique social and educational issues and problems, the origin of extended education differs across nations.From this point of view, this paper suggested four conceptual models to explain the different nature of extended education development within each nation.This attempt contributes to the development of extended education research; this is because a better understanding of the origin of extended education helps us learn why researchers have developed different interests, views, and research topics in this area and the kinds of theories we may employ to conduct research in extended education.Finally, this research suggested the key concepts of extended education that help distinguish this field from the mainstream formal and regular education system.The findings of this research on the key concepts and development models will contribute to establishing extended education research as a legitimate academic discipline.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Scope and field of extended education

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Typology of extended education