Biopesticides for Crop Disease Management
CPN 4010. Published September 19, 2023. DOI: doi.org/10.31274/cpn-20230919-0
Carol Pilcher, Iowa State University; Martin Chilvers, Michigan State University; Travis Faske, University of Arkansas; Andrew Friskop, North Dakota State University; Alyssa Koehler, University of Delaware; Daren Mueller, Iowa State University; Adam Sisson, Iowa State University; Darcy Telenko, Purdue University; Albert Tenuta, Ontario Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Rural Affairs; and Kiersten Wise, University of Kentucky.
Interest in using biological products in agriculture has increased in recent years. While synthetic pesticides are important in managing many key agricultural pests, biological products, such as biopesticides, are an additional tool farmers may use to manage pests. Some of the first biopesticides widely used in field crops incorporated bacterial microorganisms such as Bacillus spp. that have been used for insect, nematode, and root rot management. Fungi such as Coniothyrium minitans and Trichoderma spp. have also shown efficacy as biopesticides in field crops for diseases such as white mold in soybean. Biopesticides can also supplement fungicide resistance management tactics by reducing synthetic pesticide selection pressure on pathogen populations. While there are some known benefits of specific biopesticide products, a need for clarity exists for the general terminology, efficacy, and optimal use of biopesticides in agriculture.
The primary goal of this publication is to help farmers, crop advisors, educators, and other stakeholders increase their understanding of biopesticides and their use in field crops. The information presented in this resource is based on our knowledge of relevant literature, consultations with industry representatives, and resources provided by regulatory agencies. The biopesticide industry is rapidly expanding and changing, and we acknowledge that this publication is not a comprehensive resource on biological control products. The authors aim to provide a framework of knowledge around biopesticides, specifically biological products that may affect plant pathogens (e.g., biofungicides), and provide context for their current and future role in agricultural disease management.
Use the Table of Contents on this page to navigate between chapters and resources available in this text. Adjust browser window size or view settings if tables are not fully visible.
Earn six Certified Crop Advisor CEUs after reading this web book. Complete a quiz for each chapter to earn one CEU per chapter. See the Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page or access quizzes directly for Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
This educational resource was made possible by contributions from the North Central Integrated Pest Management Center; the Grain Farmers of Ontario; and the United States Department of Agriculture - National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA).
Regardless of the type of pesticide used, it is important to identify and understand the targeted pest organism. Field scouting is a helpful way to gain knowledge about pest issues. Want to learn scouting basics? Check out the Crop Scouting Basics in Corn and Soybean web book (CPN 4007).
Iowa State University Integrated Pest Management
Biopesticides are a component of biological control products in the emerging biological product industry. Biopesticides are a tool to help manage pests in agriculture. One challenge for biopesticide adoption and use is the limited consistency in terminology and definitions of biological products. There are different definitions for what constitutes a biopesticide globally, especially when examining these products on a regulatory, industry, researcher, and farmer level.
In the United States (US), the Environmental Pesticide Agency (EPA), the Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP), and the Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention Division (BPPD) regulate biopesticides. EPA defines biopesticides as “being derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals” (EPA 2022a). A few active ingredients in the Biopesticide Active Ingredient database include canola oil, cedarwood oil, and menthol (EPA 2022b). According to EPA, biopesticides fall into three major classifications: Biochemical, Microbial, and Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs).
Figure 1.1 Researchers use replicated field trials to determine if new pest management products, such as biopesticides, are effective at managing pests in the field.
Brandon Kleinke
Source: EPA: What are Biopesticides (EPA 2022a)
Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms. Biochemical pesticides include substances that interfere with insect mating, such as insect sex pheromones and plant extracts that manage diseases through membrane disruption. Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special committee to make such decisions.
Microbial pesticides consist of a microorganism (e.g., a bacterium, fungus, virus, or protozoan) as the active ingredient. The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt. Each strain of this bacterium produces a different mix of proteins and specifically kills one or a few related species of insect larvae.
Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein and introduce the gene into the plant's genetic material. Then the plant, instead of the Bt bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. The protein and its genetic material, but not the plant itself, are regulated by EPA.
See the modified graphical description (Figure 1.2) for a visual chart of biopesticide categories.
Figure 1.2 Modified Graphical Description for “What Are Biopesticides” (EPA 2022a). **EPA has a special committee to determine if the product can be classified as a biochemical.
In Canada, biopesticides (like synthetic chemical pesticides) must be registered by the Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) under the Federal Pest Control Products Act (PCPA) before becoming available for use in Canada. The Canadian data requirements are essentially harmonized with US-EPA whenever possible. PMRA defines biopesticides as pest management agents and chemicals derived from natural sources such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, animals, and minerals.
PMRA recognizes three types of products as biopesticides: microbial, semiochemical, and non-conventional pest control products.
Microbial Pesticides are pesticides that contain naturally occurring or genetically modified microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans, algae, mycoplasma, rickettsia, and related organisms and associated metabolites (or by-products), that are used to control pests. Many microbial organisms target only specific pests (PMRA DIR2001-02).
Semiochemicals are message-bearing chemicals produced by an organism that causes a behavioral response in another organism of the same or different species. Synthetically produced equivalents of these chemicals are also considered to be semiochemical biopesticides. The most common are insect sex pheromones, used in monitoring traps, lure-and-kill systems, or to disrupt the mating of target pests (PMRA DIR2002-02).
Non-conventional pest control products are substances already available to the public for various purposes that can also be used as pest control products. They generally pose a low risk to humans and the environment. Some examples include food items or preservatives such as garlic powder or table salt; vinegar; plant extracts and oils such as mineral oils; and fertilizers and plant growth supplements such as mineral salts (PMRA DIR2012-01).
To expedite registration of these products in Canada, PMRA data requirements for biopesticide registration are essentially harmonized with US-EPA and, whenever possible, will use the same criteria as EPA to determine the eligibility of chemicals for the reduced-risk program and recognize EPA's biopesticide designation for products currently registered in the US. Any product submission with a reduced-risk or biopesticide designation will still undergo a thorough evaluation and risk assessment. As with all pesticides, registration will only be considered if the proposed biopesticide product meets current health and environmental safety standards.
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), “There is no globally agreed definition of biological pest control agents or so-called “biopesticides” (FAO and WHO 2017). Guidelines for the Registration of Microbial, Botanical, and Semiochemical Pest Control Agents for Plant Protection and Public Health Uses (2017) is a document that provides guidelines for the registration of biopesticides. Furthermore, it categorizes biopesticides (biological pest control agents) as microbials, botanicals, and semiochemicals. In 2017, the Ministry of Agriculture in China announced its new efforts to adopt biochemicals and microbial pesticides (China Ministry of Agriculture 2017). China has five regulatory categories for biopesticides (Wang 2021):
Microbial: living organisms that can be bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans, and gene-modified microorganisms
Botanical: active ingredients from plants
Biochemical: active ingredients can be semiochemicals, natural plant growth regulators, natural insect growth regulators, natural plant elicitors, and other biochemicals
Natural Enemy: active ingredients are live organisms (not microbial pesticides)
Agricultural Antibiotics
The European Union (EU) does not have a standardized term for biopesticides, but the major categories include microorganisms, semiochemicals, botanical extracts, and biological control agents (Figure 1.3; Ansari 2021).
Figure 1.3 Modified graphical description of the term “biopesticides” in Europe (Ansari 2021).
The biopesticide industry continues to grow as companies develop new products or acquire compounds from smaller biological companies or through mergers. These acquisitions and mergers allow companies to develop portfolios that include a variety of biopesticides. In addition, these efforts have allowed the discovery and commercialization of products globally. However, individual companies may define and categorize biopesticides differently. Many companies list “Biological Products” as a part of their portfolio. However, the categorization of each biological sector is not consistent. Some terms include biologicals (living and non-living), biochemical pesticides, biopesticides, biofungicides, bionematicides, bioinsecticides, microbial, biochemicals, biostimulants, biocontrols, and biofertilizers See Figure 1.4 for a biological market overview modified from Dunham Trimmer® 2015 (as orginally cited by Ag Internaltional).
Figure 1.4 Biological market overview. Modified from Dunham Trimmer® 2015 (As originally cited by Ag International).
While consistent terminology and classification would benefit regulators, industry, researchers, and farmers, discoveries and rapid product development of biopesticides have resulted in challenges for regulatory agencies worldwide. These advancements are occurring in many different branches of biopesticides. Therefore, this web book will focus on biological products that target plant diseases. This document will not include biologicals categorized as “Plant-Incorporated Protectants” since many countries do not consider these products to be biopesticides.
Earn a Certified Crop Advisor CEU after reading this chapter. Successfully complete the Chapter 1 quiz for one CEU. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.
This chapter covers regulatory requirements for biopesticides from the standpoint of the federal regulatory system in the US and globally. There is also information regarding biopesticides and the National Organic Program through the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the EPA. Additionally, state specific organic certification may exist and biostimulants and biofertilizers are discussed.
Figure 2.1 Some biopesticides are approved for use in organic agriculture production. However, it is important to understand that not all biopesticides are certified organic products.
Daren Mueller
In 1994, the US-EPA developed a special regulatory system to register and regulate biological products for commercial use. According to EPA, “Since biopesticides tend to pose fewer risks than conventional pesticides, EPA generally requires much less data to register a biopesticide than to register a conventional pesticide. In fact, new biopesticides are often registered in less than a year, compared with an average of more than three years for conventional pesticides” (EPA 2022a). Furthermore, to be classified as a biopesticide, EPA has established the following criteria:
Biopesticides are selective and show no adverse effects on non-target organisms.
Biopesticides degrade quickly and show no adverse effects regarding soil, water, and air contamination. These criteria allow registrants to quickly complete long-term environmental residue studies.
Biopesticides are often exempt from residue tolerance studies. Since biopesticides leave no toxic residue for humans after applications, workers can safely return to the field hours after an application, and biopesticides can be used up to the harvest date.
EPA Registration Requirements. EPA is the regulatory agency responsible for registering and labeling pesticides per registration requirements of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Registration of any pesticide, whether synthetic or a biopesticide, is a very detailed process and requires testing requirements and submission of data outlining the nature and impacts of the pesticide. It is important to note that some biopesticides are exempt from FIFRA requirements as they qualify as “minimum risk pesticides.” These pesticides do not have an EPA Registration Number (EPA Reg. No.) on the label. Examples include castor oil, soybean oil, and thyme oil (EPA 2018). However, this federal exemption only applies to registration at the federal level. These same products may be subject to different state registration requirements.
EPA data submission requirements for biopesticides are less stringent in some areas than those required for synthetic pesticides. However, EPA has several specific requirements outlined for microbial and biochemical products.
EPA and USDA—Biopesticide Import Regulations. All import pesticide shipments into the US must be approved by EPA. Approval must be requested and granted by the EPA regional office for the port of entry where the pesticide is presented for Customs clearance. A permit known as the Notice of Arrival (NOA), is required for biopesticides and conventional pesticides (EPA 2022d). Microorganisms collected from foreign sources, for use or testing as biopesticides, biofertilizers, or soil amendments, require a permit for import, movement, and release in the US. These permits are reviewed and granted by the USDA and the Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Microbial fungicides from foreign sources require both an EPA NOA and a USDA import and release permit in order to gain Customs clearance (USDA 2023b).
Figure 2.2 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) data submission requirements for biopesticides are less stringent in some areas than those required for synthetic pesticides.
Darcy Telenko
Recent assessments of pesticides registered in other countries show increased biopesticides registered for agricultural disease management (Data Bridge 2022). This focus on global regulatory approvals excludes products with genetic modifications. To expedite registration of these products in Canada, PMRA data requirements for biopesticide registration are essentially harmonized with US-EPA and, whenever possible, will use the same criteria as EPA to determine the eligibility of chemicals for the reduced-risk program and recognize EPA's biopesticide designation for products currently registered in the US. Any product submission with a reduced-risk or biopesticide designation will still undergo a thorough evaluation and risk assessment. As with all pesticides, registration will only be considered if the proposed biopesticide product meets current health and environmental safety standards.
The European Union has attempted to change legislation to support the registration and regulation of biopesticides. Registration of a biopesticide takes three to six years, and regulatory approvals last 15 years (European Commission 2023). In 2017, China released a new process for registering biopesticides, but it still uses the same regulatory framework for “chemical pesticides” and “biochemical pesticides, microbial pesticides, and botanical pesticides.” There are reductions in the environmental impact requirements, but in some cases, special committees require additional information to register biopesticides (China Ministry of Agriculture 2017). Global regulatory approvals may require strategic planning from the industry.
In some cases, the successful approval of a product in one country must be completed before the registration review will be initiated in another country. If countries share the data needed for registration, this can reduce the regulatory research costs for the company. However, this sequence of approvals can take more time for global approvals.
Figure 2.3 As with all pesticides, registration will only be considered if the proposed biopesticide product meets current health and environmental safety standards.
Adam Sisson
Some biopesticides are also approved for use in organic agriculture production. However, it is important to understand that not all biopesticides are certified organic products. The organic approval process involves multiple federal agencies, including USDA and EPA. The Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 authorizes USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) to administer the National Organic Program (NOP) (USDA 2023a). This rule establishes guidelines for products and practices that qualify for use in organic crop production. More specifically, a biopesticide must have active ingredients and inert ingredients that are allowed and certified for use as part of organic production (Federal Register 2000). EPA registers and regulates pesticide products acceptable for organic production (EPA 2003).
The Organic Material Review Institute (OMRI) is an independent institution, not associated with EPA, that maintains a list of products (sorted by company) that comply with NOP standards (OMRI 2023). An OMRI “listing” denotes that a product may be used in organic production under certain conditions. Products with the OMRI Seal also have an OMRI Listed Certificate that includes specific information on the product, including issue and expiration dates for this OMRI listing. Biopesticide labels may have logos from both OMRI (Figure 2.4) and EPA (Figure 2.5). The OMRI logo communicates that the product could be used in organic production. The EPA’s “For organic production” logo aims to communicate the same and can be added as part of the pesticide registration process. Products often have the OMRI logo present, but products can have both logos present.
Figure 2.4 Organic Material Review Institute (OMRI) listed product seal.
Figure 2.5 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) For Organic Production indicator.
Some states have unique criteria when it comes to obtaining organic certification. A notable instance is California, where organic operations adhere to the California State Organic Program regulations, overseen by state laws (CDFA 2023). If a biopesticide is authorized in organic agriculture, specifically in California, its label will feature the designated logo (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6 California Department of Food and Agriculture Registered Organic Input Material seal.
A biostimulant is a substance or microorganism that, when applied to plants or the surrounding soil, can enhance the growth or development of crops. They may contain hormones, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, and/or beneficial microorganisms that can improve plant metabolism, nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and root development. Biostimulants do not directly provide nutrients to crops, so they are not considered fertilizers. A biofertilizer is a fertilizer consisting of living microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or algae, which benefit plant growth. These microorganisms colonize the root zone and form symbiotic relationships with them to enhance nutrient availability and uptake.
Currently, EPA does not regulate products defined as biostimulants. The federal registration requirement for a product to be defined as a biostimulant is determined by product composition (i.e., active and inert ingredients) and product use claims. While some products sold as biostimulants do not require regulation, other products may trigger regulation under FIFRA. Specifically, plant hormones that act as growth promoters (e.g., auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins) and hormones that act as growth inhibitors (e.g., ethylene and abscisic acid) are considered by EPA to be plant regulators or pesticides and require federal registration in the US, even if they are derived from plant extracts or microbial sources (EPA 2022c). Biofertilizers, in general, are excluded from FIFRA regulation and registration by EPA (Federal Register 2008). Other products excluded from EPA registration include plant nutrients (macronutrients and micronutrients), plant inoculants (micronutrients used to enhance the uptake of nutrients), and soil amendments (substances used to improve soil characteristics). Nitrogen stabilizers are exempt from registration and regulation if they meet specific criteria. These products do not have an EPA Reg. No. on the label (more information--Chapter 3). Products not registered at the federal level may have different registration requirements at the state level.
In Canada, biostimulant and biofertilizer products sold and/or imported are regulated by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) under the authority of the Federal Fertilizers Act and Regulations. “Biostimulant” or “biofertilizer” products used to control disease or pests, as defined in the Pest Control Products Act (PCPA), are regulated by PMRA. Where products exhibit dual properties (i.e., act to improve growth or mitigate abiotic stress and act to inhibit growth or mitigate biotic stresses), they may be regulated under both the Fertilizers Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. F-10) and PCPA (SC 2002, c. 28). Once a pesticide is registered, it is given a registration number, also known as a Pest Control Products Number. This number must be on the label of any pesticide sold or used in Canada.
Earn a Certified Crop Advisor CEU after reading this chapter. Successfully complete the Chapter 2 quiz for one CEU. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.
Figure 2.7 Biostimulants can enhance the growth or development of crops and may contain hormones, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, and/or beneficial microorganisms that can improve plant metabolism, nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and root development.
Travis Faske
Biopesticides and synthetic fungicides differ in their product labels and labeling requirements. Therefore, terminology and application use differ on the label. This section will focus on understanding product labels for EPA-registered biopesticides.
Always carefully read the product label, as it is a valuable source of information. In addition, the label is the law, so following all requirements stated on the label is required. Each label is required to include this specific statement: It is a violation of Federal law to use a product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling.
A label provides details about the product, including trade name, active ingredients, and mode of action. The label includes the crops a biopesticide may be used on, diseases managed, application rate, instructions for applicator safety, and numerous other important statements regarding the product or products contained. Biopesticide labels have consistent locations for important product information. However, biopesticides also provide unique information that should be carefully examined. This unique information is essential for proper application of the biopesticide for effective management with the target pathogen (i.e., disease).
Some labels will include information on how to avoid the development of pest resistance. This information may include IPM tactics for disease management. In addition, the label will provide resources for assisting with developing an IPM program.
Figure 3.1 A pesticide label includes lots of information, including instructions for applicator safety such as personal protective equipment (PPE) that must be worn when handling a product.
Adam Sisson
This is the patented name under which the product is commercially available. Similar to synthetic fungicides, different companies may use different trade names for the same active ingredient. Trade names or company names that include “bio” do not indicate that the product is an EPA-registered biopesticide product (Figures 3.2(1)).
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
The type of pesticide and formulation may be listed together or on separate parts of the label. This information is located near the trade name. Biopesticides may be identified here (e.g., biological fungicide, microbial fungicide, or biofungicide) (Figures 3.2(2)).
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
Active ingredients (a.i.) are the active component of the biopesticide. The active ingredients may contain chemical and/or common names.
Microbial pesticides are required to list the biological, genetic, biochemical, or other appropriate ingredient. The scientific name and specific strain of microbial organisms must be identified for many biopesticides under the active ingredient list (Figure 3.2(3)).
Examples: Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain D747, Bacillus firmus strain I-1582, Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain AFS009
Other biopesticides have naturally occurring ingredients, and quantitative chemical methods are unavailable. In these cases, the recognized bioassay name and units may be used.
Example: Clarified Hydrophobic Extract of Neem Oil
As a comparison, for synthetic fungicides, the chemical name and/or common name may be used on the label. For example (Figure 3.2(3)):
A chemical name is the description of the chemical components and structure: Methyl(E)-2-{2-[6-(2-cyanophenoxy)pyrimidin-4- yloxy]phenyl}-3-methoxyacrylate)
The common name is the less technical term for the active ingredient: azoxystrobin.
Some labels use both: Azoxystrobin: Methyl(E)-2-{2-[6-(2-cyanophenoxy)pyrimidin-4- yloxy]phenyl}-3-methoxyacrylate)
Inert ingredients are also listed, although they are often listed as “Other Ingredients.” These ingredients are only required to be listed as the percentage of the product's total weight. Inert ingredients must comply with a series of EPA guidance documents and databases. For biopesticides, actual inert ingredients must be included in specific inert product EPA databases. These inert ingredients will be kept confidential and can be listed as “Other Ingredients.”
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
Companies must work closely with EPA to submit all scientific information and data required for EPA to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the biopesticide product. This assessment will result in a regulatory decision to approve the biopesticide for sale and distribution. The EPA Reg. No. indicates that a product has completed this comprehensive assessment. As stated in Chapter 2, some products are not required to complete the registration process.
Two different biological products may have the same active ingredient.
If the product states its purpose is to act as a biopesticide, then the product is required to be registered with EPA and will have an EPA Reg. No.
If the active ingredient states the purpose of the product is to be used as a plant nutrient, plant inoculant, or soil amendment to enhance plant growth, then the product is not required to be registered with EPA, and the product may not have an EPA Reg. No.
If a product has an EPA registration number, it indicates that the product manufacturer has completed the EPA comprehensive assessment for registration, even if it is not required (Figure 3.2(4)).
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
This categorization of each product is essential to reducing the development of resistance (more information--Chapter 4) (Figures 3.2(5)).
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
Formulations are the fungicide's usable form and delivery system (Figures 3.2(6)).
The specific type of formulation may be a part of the trade name.
Example: MYCOCRUSHER MAX EC = emulsifiable concentrate
Biopesticides: Novel formulations continue to be developed, especially for biological products targeting plant diseases. These new formulations assist with the delivery and effectiveness of these new products (more information--Chapter 5).
It may also be found as a part of the FRAC Code (details on FRAC Codes--Chapter 4).
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
This section contains essential information regarding personal safety, encompassing details such as the signal word, recommended personal protective equipment, and guidelines to help ensure user safety during and after product application. Furthermore, it furnishes specific instructions regarding the approved crops and targeted diseases.
Personal Safety. It is important to read the entire section on safety, including the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) for individuals that are part of the location receiving a pesticide application. Emergency contact information is included in this section. Safety is of utmost importance when dealing with any pesticide.
Signal Word. This is the required acute toxicity designation of each pesticide product. One of the advantages of biological products is that they are less toxic compared with synthetic fungicides and many are given the least toxic designation—CAUTION.
Signal Words (Figures 3.2(7))
DANGER—POISON is for a product that has the highest level of toxicity and must include: DANGER—POISON and the skull and crossbones symbol.
DANGER is for a product that is highly toxic and can cause severe eye damage or skin irritation.
WARNING is for a product that is considered moderately toxic.
CAUTION is for a slightly toxic product.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). This information is essential for workers that work directly or indirectly with pesticides. In many cases, the PPE required for applicators and handlers of biopesticides is a long-sleeved shirt and long pants, protective eye wear, waterproof gloves, and shoes plus socks.
Restricted Re-entry Interval (REI). The time that must elapse before any worker can safely enter the field after application. For some biopesticides, the REI is only four hours.
Preharvest Interval (PHI). This is the time from application until it is safe to harvest the crop. For some products, the biopesticides can be applied up to and including the day of harvest.
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
This section offers valuable insights into approved application methods, targeted diseases, and crops for disease management. For detailed information on formulations and application methods, please refer to Chapter 5. The objective of this section is to highlight specific label information that is crucial for the effective utilization of biopesticides.
Approved Use. This section provides information on the select crop, targeted diseases, application rates, and specific directions for use.
Biopesticide labels may have a notation that applications for specific crops and diseases are not approved.
Example: This product is not approved for use in some states. Check your state for approval information for this product.
Biopesticides may have specific information on the timing of applications.
Example: Begin application before disease and repeat at seven to 10-day intervals.
Example: If significant rain occurs 12 hours after application, a new application will be needed during the next four days.
Biopesticides may have specific information on mixing and application (more information--Chapter 5).
Example: The spray solution must be agitated during mixing and application.
Example: Do not allow the spray mixture to stand overnight; do not store mixed slurries for longer than 24 hours.
Storage. This section provides information on how to store the product to maximize stability and viability of the product.
Biopesticides may have specific storage and use requirements.
Example: Not for use six months after the date of manufacture (Figure 3.2(8)).
Example: Do not store at temperatures above 75°F (24°C) for prolonged periods. (details on storage--Section 6.1).
Additional information on fungicide labels can be found in the Fungicide Labeling and Terminology chapter of the Fungicide Use in Field Crops web book (CPN 4008).
Figure 3.2. These illustrations represent important information found on pesticide labels. In addition, these example labels compare the information found on a synthetic fungicide label with a biofungicide label.
Earn a Certified Crop Advisor CEU after reading this chapter. Successfully complete the Chapter 3 quiz for one CEU. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.
Classifying fungicides involves categorizing them based on their characteristics, including chemical composition, mode of action, and target pathogens. This classification helps farmers and researchers understand the characteristics and effectiveness of different fungicides for managing specific fungal diseases in crops. Biopesticides that target fungi, biofungicides, can fit into synthetic fungicides' classification system. This chapter compares how biofungicides relate to synthetic fungicides.
Figure 4.1 This Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia (a fungal survival structure) has been colonized by Coniothyrium minitans, an organism used as a biofungicide.
Audrey Conrad
Different criteria characterize biofungicides, including mode of action, chemical class, FRAC (Fungicide Resistance Action Committee) code, metabolic activity, and role in plant protection.
Mode of Action. To understand the important issue of chemical classification and the development of fungicide resistance based on class, FRAC was developed. Biofungicides are categorized into FRAC groups according to their biochemical mode of action (MOA) or means by which pathogen biosynthetic pathways are targeted. Biopesticides may be grouped by the ability to induce host plant defenses (P) or by the origin of the active ingredient. Biologicals with multiple modes of action are grouped by (BM) codes: BM01: plant extracts or BM02: microbial (strains of living microbes or extract, metabolites). Biologicals with a mode of action that is not specified are listed as group NC: not specified.
Site of Action. While the MOA categorizes how a product works, the site of action identifies where the activity is happening. Biofungicides may affect a single target site of action and others may affect multiple sites of action (Figure 4.2). Within host plant defense induction, MOA group P, there can be multiple target sites including polysaccharide elicitors, anthraquinone elicitors, and microbial elicitors. Elicitors activate chemical defenses within the targeted plant. Agents in the BM MOA may have target sites on ion membranes, cell membranes, cell walls, fungal spores, or germ tubes or induce plant defense mechanisms. Living microbes or extracts may also target competition, antibiosis, membrane disruption, or induced plant defense.
Figure 4.2. A single site of action biopesticide targets one biological process (left) while a biopesticide with multiple sites of action target more than one biological process (right).
Role in Plant Protection. Biofungicides protect plants from plant pathogens by preventing propagule production, competing against or parasitizing the pathogenic agent, producing antibiotics, or inducing host plant defenses. Biopesticides may have more than one of these types of protection. Biopesticides are best used in a preventative (protective) manner and should be present before the pathogen's arrival or initiation of disease development. Some biopesticides, when combined with synthetic fungicides, may have curative properties (i.e., cure a plant after infection). However, to our knowledge, no biopesticide applied alone has been labeled with curative properties.
Phytomobility. The terms systemic and contact (non-systemic) readily used to describe phytomobility for synthetic fungicides do not always accurately describe the phytomobility of biopesticides. After application, some of the active ingredients in biopesticides can parasitize fungal structures or colonize plant tissue (i.e., leaves or roots) and directly compete with plant pathogens. Other active ingredients may induce changes in the host’s plant defense or release compounds to prevent pathogen infection. In all cases, coverage of plant tissue from a biopesticide application is important, given the limited movement of the active ingredients. For most biopesticides, greater coverage increases the chance of a positive response against a pathogen.
FRAC was formed to provide guidelines to sustain the efficacy of “at-risk” fungicides. FRAC defines fungicide resistance as “an acquired, heritable reduction in sensitivity of a fungus to a specific anti-fungal agent (or fungicide).” In addition to MOA, the FRAC Code includes numbers and letters that separate fungicide groups by cross-resistance. This code is the “Fungicide Group” code on product labels. Fungicide groups can be separated by low, medium, or high intrinsic risk for resistance evolution. The primary FRAC groups for biopesticides are P 04 (polysaccharide elicitor), P 05 (anthraquinone elicitor), P 06 (microbial elicitor), BM 01 (derived from plant extracts), and BM 02 (derived from microbials). Resistance is not currently documented for any of these FRAC groups.
FRAC Code P - Host Plant Defense Induction
Group Name and Chemical Group: The host plant defense induction groups vary, with several salicylate-related groups, elicitors, and phosphonates. Although the chemical groups vary, they are classified similarly because when applied, they chemically induce a plant defense response, such as systemic acquired resistance. Chemical groups, including natural compounds, plant extracts, and bacterial or fungal organisms, are typically unique to the molecule or organism.
Mode of Action and Target Site: Plant defense response induction
Risk for Resistance: Resistance is unknown for most biopesticides in this class. The phosphonate group (fosetyl-AL and phosphoric acids and salts) is classified as low risk, and there have been very few confirmed cases of resistance in pathogens to this group.
FRAC Code BM 01 - Biologicals with multiple modes of action (plant extracts)
Group Name: Plant extracts
Biological Group: Polypeptide, phenols, sesquiterpenes, triterpenoids, coumarins, terpene hydrocarbons, terpene alcohols, and terpene phenols
Mode of Action and Target Site: Multiple. Varies depending on the plant extract used. Target sites include ion membrane transporters, affecting fungal spores and germ tubes, cell membrane disruption, cell wall disruptions, and inducing plant defense mechanisms.
Risk for Resistance: Resistance is not known.
FRAC Code BM 02 - Biologicals with multiple modes of action (microbials)
Group Name: Living microbes, extracts, or metabolites
Biological Group: Strains of living microbes or extract metabolites
Mode of Action and Target Site: Multiple. Varies depending on the compound. Examples include competition, mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and membrane disruption by fungicidal lipopeptides.
Risk for Resistance: Resistance is not known.
Aflatoxin Management. Aflatoxin management in corn demonstrates how a biological control strategy can be successfully adopted in a field crop system. Aspergillus ear rot, caused by the fungus Aspergillus flavus, is the most economically important corn ear rot in the US. The fungus produces the mycotoxin known as aflatoxin, which is dangerous due to its toxicity to humans and livestock. As a result, most governments monitor and regulate mycotoxins in corn and other high-risk crops harvested for food and feed.
Biocontrol products for aflatoxin management, known as atoxigenics, use strains of A. flavus, that do not produce aflatoxin. These atoxigenics out compete toxigenic strains of A. flavus and help reduce aflatoxin accumulation in corn and other at-risk crops, including peanuts, cottonseed, almonds, and pistachios. For corn, two atoxigenic strains of A. flavus are labeled for use in the US to prevent aflatoxin accumulation.
When applied to the crop, these atoxigenic strains are dormant and carried on nonviable grain (sterilized or hulled wheat or barley). The atoxigenic fungus is activated by moisture and produces spores, relying on the grain carrier as a food source (Figure 4.3). The spores, which are dispersed by the wind, eventually blow upward and colonize the kernels of the developing ear.
Figure 4.3 Spores of atoxigenic fungi spread via wind, colonize kernels, and outcompete toxin-producing fungi.
Under some circumstances, applying atoxigenics increases the incidence of Aspergillus ear rot, usually at the tips of the ears. However, this damage is greatly offset by the reduction in aflatoxin. The spores from the atoxigenic strains will outnumber the spores of native, toxin-producing A. flavus strains, and they will out-compete the native strains for the limited number of sites in the kernels where they can grow. This decreases the overall aflatoxin accumulation in the crop. As with other biocontrol products, many factors must be considered before using these products. Applying atoxigenics is not without risks. Before using these products, always consider application timing, moisture (low/high), storage, product cost (return on investment), environmental conditions, etc.
For more information: Using Atoxigenics to Manage Aflatoxin (CPN 2005).
Management of White Mold in Soybean. The white mold pathogen, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, survives in the soil as sclerotia and can infect several crops, including soybean, peanut, dry bean, and sunflower. This disease can cause significant yield loss, especially during cool, wet years.
The sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum survive for many years in the soil (Figure 4.4). The disease cycle begins when mushroom-like structures called apothecia are formed on the soil surface from sclerotia. Spores from apothecia infect senescing soybean flowers, and the fungus eventually infects the stem.
Characteristic black sclerotia eventually are visible and embedded within mycelium on stem and pod lesions and inside the stem and pods as the plant approaches death. Pods affected by white mold generally contain smaller, lighter, white, and cottony seeds. Soybean seed can be contaminated with sclerotia that act as survival structures for the fungus. The sclerotia are found in infected plants and seeds as they drop to the soil.
Figure 4.4. White mold disease cycle
The fungus Coniothyrium minitans is a commercially available mycoparasite (a fungus that feeds on other fungi). This product will target the sclerotia that survive for many years in the soil. Application of C. minitans should occur at least three months or longer before white mold is likely to develop. This will allow adequate time for the fungus to colonize and degrade sclerotia. Degraded sclerotia will not produce apothecia and, therefore, will not produce ascospores to initiate infections on soybean.
Biological control products will not eliminate all sclerotia; fields heavily infested with sclerotia may continue developing disease until the number of sclerotia in the soil is further reduced. More studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of biological control products and their potential to reduce white mold, especially in fields with native populations of biological control fungi.
For more information: An Overview of White Mold (CPN-1005) and White Mold of Soybean web book (CPN 1028).
To see more examples of biopesticides, see Table of Products. This table includes examples of biopesticides with information on types of biopesticides, active ingredients, activity, targeted diseases, and target crops.
Earn a Certified Crop Advisor CEU after reading this chapter. Successfully complete the Chapter 4 quiz for one CEU. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.
Over the last two decades, biopesticide use on several important field crops in the US and Canada has increased. Multiple reasons exist for the increased application of biopesticides, including crop market prices, increased production and marketing by the chemical industry, increased interest in organic production systems, need for disease management options in crops that have limited pesticides registered (i.e., edamame), and the need for new tools to manage diseases and reduce development of pathogen populations resistant to specific pesticide or pesticide groups. Biopesticide development and use is expected to continue to increase in the future.
The most appropriate biopesticide application type and method depends on many factors, including target disease, host crop, crop growth stage, application equipment, product cost, etc. Consult the label for information about specific application methods, crops, and locations approved for the product. Application timing and coverage can greatly influence the success of a biopesticide to protect plants from disease.
The foliar application of biopesticide protects the aboveground plant parts. Generally, biopesticides cannot eliminate a pathogen once it invades plant tissue and they are most effective when applied before infection. Seed- and soil-applied biopesticides are commonly promoted for their ability to safeguard against fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, and nematodes that contribute to damping-off, seedling blight, and root rots. While seed-applied biopesticides are applied to the seed coat, soil-applied often refers to products applied in the seed furrow. These products protect the seed and developing seedling root systems against disease and, in some cases, prevent disease development on aboveground plant parts; however, they will not improve or increase germination of poor-quality seed. Multiple factors should be considered before a biopesticide is applied, such as disease presence or risk, field history, past and predicted environmental conditions, susceptibility of the crop to disease, crop growth stage, product cost, application costs, yield potential, and crop value.
In some instances, biopesticides may be less expensive than their synthetic counterparts; however, application costs may be similar. There are still unknowns regarding optimizing biopesticide use for maximum efficacy. Farmers should carefully weigh the costs and benefits of these applications. Furthermore, some biopesticides may provide yield protection in one crop but not in another; thus, reviewing current and local research studies can be beneficial when selecting a biopesticide for a specific crop.
Figure 5.1 Application coverage can greatly influence the success of a biopesticide to protect plants from disease. Coverage is partly determined by the type of spray nozzle used.
Tristan Mueller
Seed-applied biopesticides are applied on the seed coat like other seed-applied fungicides, insecticides, or nematicides. They are marketed to protect against soilborne pathogens such as nematodes, fungi, and fungi-like organisms that cause seed rots, root rots, and seedling diseases (e.g., damping-off, root rots, and seedling blight). Additionally, seed-applied biopesticides may protect against seedborne pathogens. The use of seed-applied products varies by crop, pathogen, availability, and production system. Seed can be purchased with a biopesticide that has already been applied or can be included as a customized seed treatment with a combination of seed treatment products. It is important to follow all directions on the label to maximize the product’s effectiveness. Biopesticide seed treatment considerations include the rate used, product stability, compatibility with other products applied to the seed, and its effect on seed viability. Biopesticides need to maintain specific shipment and storage requirements to maximize stability (temperature and time in storage are two important factors) (more information--Section 6.2). Biopesticides can be combined with other seed treatments, but it is essential to understand how to maintain biological activity as the seed treatments are mixed and successfully move through a planter and into the soil. Environmental conditions before, during, and after planting can impact the product’s effectiveness.
Figure 5.2 Seed can be purchased with a biopesticide already applied or biopesticide can be included as a customized seed treatment with a combination of seed treatment products.
Adam Sisson
Soil-applied biopesticides are used to protect seed and/or the developing seedling against fungi and nematodes. These products can be used with or without seed-applied biopesticide. In-furrow applications direct the product into the seed furrow at planting, often over the top of the seed; this technique directs the product near the seed and soon-to-be seedling roots. Specific equipment can assist and maintain efficacy for biopesticides. A spray nozzle tip oriented parallel to the seed furrow or a microtube can be used for in-furrow applications. Banded applications direct product in a narrow strip over the developing seedling or seed. Nozzle tip orientation can be 45 degrees or perpendicular to the seed furrow. Those applied on a six-inch band perpendicular to the open furrow or on covered seed on the soil surface are called t-band applications. These soil-applied products are applied using a pressurized sprayer. Because some products are living bacteria, using non-chlorinated water is often recommended. Tank mixing with chlorinated water can harm or kill some bacteria, reducing the efficacy of the biopesticide. Dechlorination tablets can be used to remove chlorine from potable water if non-chlorinated water is unavailable. Biopesticides can be tank mixed after the recommended timeline on the dechlorination product label. There are often more restrictions with mixing biopesticides with synthetic fungicides, so consult the label for approved tank mix pesticide options. In general, in-furrow or banded applications are most beneficial for protecting emerging and developing seedlings from disease in fields with high disease pressure. Diseases caused by Rhizoctonia are often targeted with these applications, but biopesticides may reduce other seedling diseases depending on product efficacy.
Figure 5.3 In-furrow applications direct biopesticide product into the seed furrow at planting, often over the top of the seed; this technique directs the product near the seed and soon-to-be seedling roots.
Daren Mueller
Applying an effective foliar biopesticide at the right time may help delay or prevent disease development and protect yield. Several factors will influence the timing, including plant growth stage, level of disease, pathogen biology, and application logistics (i.e., environmental conditions and equipment).
Spray Nozzle Types and Sizes
Selecting the right spray nozzle type and size is critical for biopesticide application. Many nozzle types currently are available that affect spray patterns and reduce drift (Figure 5.4). Application timing, crop growth stage, application method, and target disease should all influence nozzle selection and sprayer setup. For example, nozzles that reduce herbicide drift may not produce the recommended droplet size, which may prevent optimal coverage for biopesticide applications. The orifice size of the spray nozzle is one factor that influences droplet size and spray pattern. Agricultural nozzles are universally color coded to identify the flow rates in gallons per minute (GPM) at a pressure of 40 pounds per square inch (PSI), as established by the International Organization for Standards. All nozzle manufacturers use this code. Another example is that of wheat head scab applications which should consider the wheat head target and may require angled sprayer nozzles to promote coverage of the wheat head.
Figure 5.4 Spray patterns for various nozzle types. Adapted from Grisso et al. 2019. Nozzles: Selection and Sizing. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Pub 442-032 and Johnson and Swetnam. 1996. Sprayer Nozzles: Selection and Calibration. University of Kentucky. PAT-3.
The droplet size a spray nozzle creates is influenced by the application pressure and spray angle. Increasing pressure decreases droplet size. Changing pressure can dramatically change the droplet spectrum within a given nozzle (Figure 5.5). It is important to select nozzles capable of producing the correct droplet size at the desired spray angle and pressure for the application. Sprayers equipped with Pulse Width Modulation can better maintain droplet size with changes in pressure.
Figure 5.5 Examples of nozzles that can achieve fine or medium droplets for synthetic fungicide applications (biopesticide applications may differ). 1Volume median diameter is used to classify droplet size into seven categories: very fine (VF), fine (F), medium (M), course (C), very course (VC), extremely course (XC), and ultra-course.
Chemigation delivers products through an irrigation system. Products are mixed in irrigation flow through metering equipment or a chemical injector. This is often used instead of ground spray applications for foliar diseases or distributing fungicides near the soil line to protect against soilborne diseases. While this can be effective, the choice of product and application carrier rate can be critical. Extracts of giant knotweed (Reynoutria sachalinesiss) are registered for fungal disease control or suppression of some legume crops and are registered as REGALIA® CG (Bayer Crop Protection 2020). It is recommended through drip and various overhead irrigation application methods. Some labeled chemigation recommendations include applying with 0.1 to 0.3 inches of water per acre (2.5 to 7.6 millimeters of water per hectare), applying preplant for suppression of certain soilborne diseases, and not mixing with other pesticides, surfactants, or fertilizers that have not been tested for reduced physical compatibility or efficacy. Other restrictions are on the label by the manufacturer for use in sprinkler and drip chemigation.
Figure 5.6 Chemigation delivers products through an irrigation system.
Adam Sisson
Similar to synthetic fungicides, there are numerous formulations of biopesticides. Formulations stabilize the organism for storage/handling and application, protect the agent from environmental factors at the target site, and enhance activity and contact with the target organism. In general, there are dry and liquid formulations. Common dry formulations include granules (GR), water-dispersible granules (WG), and wettable powders (WP). Liquid formulations consist of suspension concentrates (SC) as the most common for bacilli-producing endospore biopesticides. Other components in liquid formulations consist of stabilizers, water, binders, dispersants, UV protectants, and other adjuvants when compatible with the microbial agent. Adjuvants are surfactants that are used as wetting agents to improve the coverage of foliar fungicides. They may not be warranted with biopesticides as they may inhibit efficacy against the target pathogen. Additional research is necessary to understand adjuvants' potential impact on the field efficacy of biopesticides.
Figure 5.7 Adjuvants are used to improve the coverage of pesticides.
Travis Faske
All application equipment must be calibrated before applying biopesticides to ensure effective and accurate treatment. Proper calibration ensures that the correct amount of the product is applied to the target area, maximizing its efficacy while minimizing waste and potential harm to the environment. One can determine the appropriate nozzle size, spray pressure, and application rate by calibrating a sprayer for a soil or foliar application. Calibration and inspection of chemigation equipment (e.g., injection pumps, filters, and check valves) ensure the correct application rate and prevents backflow and contamination of water supplies. These calibration steps are important factors in achieving uniform coverage and distribution of the biopesticide. This not only helps control diseases but also optimizes the utilization of biopesticide, thus reducing costs and increasing overall efficiency. Accurate calibration promotes sustainable agricultural practices and supports the long-term success of biopesticide applications by providing consistent and reliable results.
Earn a Certified Crop Advisor CEU after reading this chapter. Successfully complete the Chapter 5 quiz for one CEU. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.
Figure 5.8 All application equipment must be calibrated before applying biopesticides to ensure effective and accurate treatment.
Tristan Mueller
Biopesticides are a tool that farmers can use to manage plant diseases. Like other pesticides, biopesticide products can have limitations and may not always work as intended or expected. There are many factors to consider which will increase the likelihood of successful biopesticide application. In this chapter, we discuss factors that influence the efficacy of biopesticides in a field setting.
Figure 6.1 Soybean field trial plots testing the biofungicide Contans®.
Darcy Telenko
Just as with synthetic crop protection products, biopesticides may have special storage, transportation, and handling requirements, and therefore, it is critical to refer to the specific product label for these and any other manufacturer guidelines. Storage conditions are important to maintain product efficacy between applications. Products stored beyond the manufacturer's suggested storage period or subjected to poor conditions, such as exposure to extreme cold (below freezing) or extreme heat, can have reduced efficacy. Settling can also occur, making it important to mix individual products in the storage container before placing them in the sprayer. Biopesticide active ingredient dosage may not be correct if products have settled, or the organism's viability is reduced. Be sure to store biopesticides in the original containers and with easy access to the product label. Mislabeled containers can result in the wrong product being applied and, at worst, accidental human consumption or exposure. Having easy access to and reviewing the label minimizes the chance of mixing and application mistakes.
Figure 6.2 Mislabeled containers can result in the wrong product being applied and, at worst, accidental human consumption or exposure. This is an example of poor labeling.
Adam Sisson
It is essential to understand how biopesticides may work with other products to provide proper and effective applications. Biopesticides may not be compatible with synthetic pesticides targeting plant diseases, adjuvants, and other chemicals. Biopesticides may contain living organisms, which may be ineffective when applied with synthetic pesticides and/or if synthetic pesticides occur too soon before or after a biopesticide application. Research is needed to continually examine the relationships between biopesticides, synthetic pesticides, and other chemicals.
There is a proper way to mix and add formulations in the spray tank. First, correctly calculate the treatment area and the corresponding amount of product to be used. Calculation errors may increase costs, cause crop injury, and result in poor disease control. It is important to check the label for requirements concerning the water used in the tank. Poor water quality (hardness, pH, chlorinated water, etc.) can reduce the efficacy of biopesticides. The ideal water pH for fungicide mixing is approximately 7.0. Effectiveness can be reduced if mixed with water with a pH that is too high (alkaline) or too low (acidic). This can especially be a problem if the pH is greater than 8.0. Use a pH buffer to correct unfavorable pH levels, adding the buffer before the biopesticide. Biopesticides should be used soon after mixing as product efficacy declines after mixing.
Always carefully read the product label for potential negative interactions or consequences. A few specific examples from biopesticide labels include:
DO NOT mix with any other copper-based products.
Do not mix with peroxides or other sulfonated fungicides, which may cause phytotoxicity.
This product is incompatible with chemicals containing the following active ingredients: imazalil, propiconazole, tebuconazole, and triflumizole. Do not apply this product before these pesticides are used.
Some labels will provide specific directions on the order of adding additional tank components. In addition, the directions may include specific agitation instructions. Not all tank mixtures have been tested with these biopesticides. Always check the product labels for compatibility information, and if there are specific questions about how products may interact, contact the product manufacturer.
Figure 6.3 There are many different kinds of pesticides available for crop protection. Check labels as biopesticides may not be compatible with synthetic pesticides targeting plant diseases, adjuvants, and other chemicals.
Adam Sisson
Most biopesticides have a limited period of activity after application. Applying biopesticides too early in the growing season may result in insufficient active ingredients in or on the plant when disease onset occurs. Conversely, some products may need to be applied early for optimal disease suppression. Biopesticides cannot adequately control some diseases once disease symptoms or signs appear, and in these cases, products applied at symptom or sign onset may be too late to protect against losses. Thus, applying biopesticides at the most appropriate time or plant growth stage is important. The most appropriate application window differs for individual crops and diseases. There may be only a short period for optimal application when protection during a specific growth stage is necessary, as with Fusarium head blight (caused by Fusarium graminearum) of wheat or with white mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) of soybean. Applications outside optimal timing reduce the likelihood of economic return and satisfactory disease control.
Figure 6.4 Biopesticide applications outside optimal timing reduce the likelihood of economic return and satisfactory disease control. There may be only a short period for optimal application when protection during a specific growth stage is necessary, as with Fusarium head blight of wheat.
Craig Grau and the University of Wisconsin-Madison Teaching Images Collection
Proper calibration of the sprayer utilized for biopesticide application is essential to ensure accurate delivery rates and achieve adequate coverage. Poor calibration can result in phytotoxicity due to excessive rates or ineffective disease control due to insufficient product reaching the target areas. It is crucial to recalibrate the sprayer whenever modifications are made to the nozzles, pressures, or speed. The carrier volume, as specified on the product label, is very important. Optimal application pressure may vary between biopesticides and other pesticides. Maintaining a constant speed during application and utilizing appropriate spray pressure will contribute to optimized coverage. If the same equipment is employed for applying fungicides and herbicides, adjusting the nozzles and pressure according to the pesticide used is vital. To minimize drift caused by small droplets (less than 100 microns) generated at high pressures, adjustments should be made to the boom width, height, and sprayer drive rows to reduce spray overlap or missed areas.
Figure 6.5 It is crucial to recalibrate the sprayer whenever modifications are made to the nozzles, pressures, or speed.
Brandon Kleinke
Conditions during and immediately following application can greatly impact how a biopesticide functions. For example, dew, rain, or irrigation occurring immediately after application can dilute a product or wash it from foliage before it dries or becomes rainfast. Strong winds can cause drift, reducing efficacy. Small droplets can evaporate after leaving the spray nozzle if humidity is less than 50% and temperature is more than 92°F (33°C) during application.
If the targeted planting date is early or conditions are very cool and wet for biopesticide seed treatments, seed treatments may not be enough to protect against certain pathogens. Additionally, depending on the product and disease, seed treatments may only protect seeds and seedlings for a limited time after planting. If environmental conditions conducive to disease only occur after that time and on a susceptible variety, a farmer may see disease and think the seed treatment has failed, even though disease occurrence is outside the limited activity window.
Figure 6.6 Dew occurring immediately after application can dilute a product or wash it from foliage before it dries or becomes rainfast
Adam Sisson
Misdiagnosis of diseases present may result in poor control because an ineffective fungicide product may be applied. Accurate disease diagnosis will help differentiate economically important diseases, diseases that are not economically important (those that do not cause yield losses great enough to justify an application), and other disorders that are not caused by fungal plant pathogens but may cause similar symptoms to fungal plant diseases. Disease symptoms caused by bacteria that look like those caused by fungi will not be managed by products that target fungi (i.e., fungicides or biofungicides). Besides diseases caused by bacteria, many other disorders can be confused with fungal-caused diseases, including environmental damage, chemical injury, insect damage, genetic flecking or striping, and root injury caused by nematodes. Lack of disease, or low levels of disease, can result in a negative or lower-than-expected return on investment. Research suggests that synthetic pesticides and biopesticides are less likely to be profitable if the disease risk is low.
Figure 6.7 Accurate disease diagnosis will help differentiate diseases such as brown stem rot of soybean (shown here) from sudden death syndrome, both of which cause similar foliar symptoms.
Adam Sisson
Biopesticides are just one additional tool available to manage field crop diseases. Many effective disease management methods can be implemented as an IPM approach to manage disease risk. These tools include selecting disease-resistant hybrids or varieties, planting pathogen-free seed, rotating crops, managing plant residue, and proper fertility. Biopesticides can be used with these and other management strategies, including synthetic fungicides. Biopesticides have the added benefit of helping to reduce synthetic pesticide selection pressure on pathogen populations, meaning they can be used as part of a pesticide resistance management plan.
For more information, see the Fungicide Use in Field Crops web book (CPN 4008).
Figure 6.8 Selection of disease resistant plant varieties is important. A corn hybrid susceptible to northern corn leaf blight (left) shows far greater disease symptoms than the resistant hybrid (right).
Albert Tenuta
Earn a Certified Crop Advisor CEU after reading this chapter. Successfully complete the Chapter 6 quiz for one CEU. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.
Although the biopesticide market is rapidly growing, widespread use in field crop agriculture is uncommon in the US and Canada. More research is needed to understand the efficacy of specific biopesticide products and their spectrum of disease control. Research is also needed to understand how biopesticides can be used effectively with synthetic pesticides without sacrificing the efficacy of either product. Educational opportunities are needed to help farmers and other stakeholders understand the complicated terminology surrounding biological products and what factors can lead to their success (or failure) in a production system. As the biopesticide market develops and expands, there will be more opportunities to research and optimize recommendations for using biopesticides in field crops.
Figure S.1 Continued research is needed to understand the efficacy of specific biopesticide products and their spectrum of disease control.
Adam Sisson
Examples of Biopesticides. This is not a comprehensive list of all the available biopesticides.
Name
| Active Ingredient(s) and Strain | Activity | Targeted Diseases | Crops |
Bacterial Organisms | ||||
DOUBLENICKEL 55™
| Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Strain D747 | COMPETITION | Cereal grains—bacterial blight/streak, brown rot/leaf spots/smuts, powdery mildew, rust, sheath spot/blight, smut, stem rots, and others | Cereal grains |
Corn—common rust and southern leaf blight | Corn (field, sweet, popcorn, seed, and sileage) | |||
Oilseed crops—bacterial speck, bacterial pustule, brown spot, Cercospora leaf spot, downy mildew, pod and stem blights, stem rot, rusts, white mold, and others | Oilseed crops | |||
Soybean—Asian soybean rust | Soybean | |||
AVEO EZ®
| Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Strain PTA-4838 | COMPETITION AND ANTIBIOSIS | Nematodes: Reniform, root-knot, and soybean cyst | Soybean |
VOTIVO 240 FS®
| Bacillus firmus Strain I-1582 | EXCLUSION | Soil plant pathogenic nematodes
| Corn (field, sweet, and popcorn), cotton, and soybean |
LIFEGARD WG®
| Bacillus mycoides Isolate J | HOST PLANT DEFENSE | Soybeans—white mold | Soybean
|
THEIA® | Bacillus subtilis Strain AFS032321 | COMPETITION AND ANTIBIOSIS | Seed treatment Seed and soilborne fungal diseases related to wilt, root rot and damping off caused by Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., and Rhizoctonia spp. | Seed treatment Cereal grains, cotton, oilseed crops, and soybean |
Soil application Corn and cotton—Fusarium wilt, Phytophthora root rot, Pythium damping off, and Rhizoctonia root rot | Soil application Corn and cotton | |||
Serenade OPTI®
| Bacillus subtilis Strain QST 713 | ANTIBIOSIS | Oilseed crops—Sclerotinia stem rot and white mold | Oilseed crops
|
Soybean—gray mold and white mold | Soybean | |||
TRUNEMCO™ (Bacterial organism + Plant Hormone) | Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Strain MBI 600 + cis-Jasmone | Activating plant defense | Multiple nematodes including Columbia lance, dagger, lance, needle, pin, Reniform, ring, root-knot, root lesion, soybean cyst, spiral, sting, and stubby root | Corn, cotton, and soybean |
AVODIGEN™
| Bacillus licheniformis Strain FMCH001
Bacillus subtilis Strain FMCH002 | UNKNOWN | Canola, cereal grains, cottonseed, sugar beet, and sunflower—seed rot and seedling blight caused by Rhizoctonia spp. | Canola, cereal grains, cottonseed, sugar beet, and sunflower |
Corn—seed rot and seedling blight caused by Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. Suppression of lesion and root-knot nematode | Corn (field, popcorn, seed, and sweet) | |||
Soybean—seed rot and seedling blight caused by Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. Suppression of root-knot and soybean cyst nematode | Soybean | |||
BIO ST 100™
| Burkholderia spp. Strain A396 | DIRECT TOXICITY, EXCLUSION | Multiple nematodes including awl, dagger, lance, lesion, pin, Reniform, ring, root-knot, soybean cyst, sting, stubby root, stunt, and soybean cyst. | Cereal grains Corn (field, popcorn, and sweet), cotton, oilseed crops, and soybean |
HOWLER®
| Pseudomonas chlororaphis Strain AFS009 | Antibiosis | Seed treatment Seed and soil-borne fungal diseases related to wilt, root rot, and damping off caused by Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., and Rhizoctonia spp. | Seed treatment Cereal grains, cotton, oilseed crops, and soybean |
Soil application (soil and foliar diseases) Cereal grains—Fusarium wilt, Phytophthora root rot, Pythium damping off, and Rhizoctonia root rot | Soil application
Cereal grains | |||
Cotton— Alternaria leaf spot, Phytophthora root rot, Rhizoctonia root rot, and target spot | Cotton | |||
Oilseed crops—Fusarium wilt, Phytophthora root rot, Pythium damping off, Rhizoctonia root rot, Alternaria leaf spot, blackspot, powdery mildew, and Sclerotinia spp. | Oilseed crops | |||
Soybean—Fusarium wilt, Phytophthora root rot, Pythium damping off, Rhizoctonia root rot, Alternaria spp., Anthracnose, Botrytis spp., downy mildew, powdery mildew, Rhizoctonia spp., target spot, and white mold | Soybean | |||
ACTINOVATE AG®
| Streptomyces lydicus Strain WYEC 108 | EXCLUSION, ANTI-FUNGAL, PARASITISM | Cereal grains—damping off (Fusarium spp., Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp.) powdery mildew, and sheath spot | Cereal grains |
Oilseed crops—Aphanomyces root and hypocotyl rot, charcoal rot, damping off (Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., and Rhizoctonia spp.), gray mold, powdery mildew, and Verticillium wilt | Oilseed crops | |||
Fungal Organisms | ||||
ALFA-GUARD GR®
| Aspergillus flavus Strain NRRL 21882 (non-toxigenic strain) | COMPETITION | Aspergillus ear rot (Aspergillus flavus) | Corn (field and popcorn) |
AF36 PREVAIL®
| Aspergillus flavus Strain AF36 (non-toxigenic strains) | COMPETITION | Aspergillus flavus
| Corn—use limited AZ and TX
Cotton—use limited AZ, CA, and TX |
CONTANS WG® | Coniothyrium minitans Strain CON/M/91-08 | MYCOPARASITISM | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. minor | Oilseed crops and soybean |
MYCOSTOP®**
| Streptomyces griseoviridis Strain K61 | COMPETITION | Seed rot, root and stem rot, and wilt diseases caused by Alternaria, Fusarium, and Phomopsis | Corn, cotton, soybean, wheat, and others |
ROOTSHIELD PLUS WP®
| Trichoderma harzianum Rifai Strain T-22 Trichoderma virens Strain G-41 | COMPETITION | Plant root pathogens including Cylindrocladium spp., Fusarium spp., Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia spp., Sclerotinia spp., and Thielaviopsis spp. | Cereal grains and oilseed crops |
BOTRYSTOP™
| Ulocladium oudemansii Strain U3 | COMPETITION | Sclerotinia stem rot | Soybean |
Chemical | ||||
KPHITE 7LP®
| Mono- and dipotassium salts of phosphorous acid | MULTIPLE, DIRECT EFFECT ON PATHOGEN AND EFFECT ON PLANT | Foliar applications: Alternaria, anthracnose, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and rust
Soil and foliar applications: Cercospora spp., Cerosporidium spp., Clavibacter spp., Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., Pseudomonas spp., Pythium, Ralstonia spp., Rhizoctonia spp., Sclerotinia spp., and Xanthomonas spp. | General list of crops including alfalfa, barley, canola, corn, cotton, sorghum, soybean, sunflower, wheat, and others
|
TRILOGY®
| Clarified hydrophobic extract of neem oil | PREVENTS SPORE GERMINATION AND INFECTION | General list of diseases including Alternaria spp., anthracnose, Botrytis spp., downy mildew, leaf blights, leaf spots, molds, powdery mildew, rusts, scabs, and others | General list of crops including alfalfa, barley, canola, corn (popcorn and sweet), cotton, oats, sorghum, soybean, wheat, and others |
BIOTRINSIC X14WD® | Natamycin | COMPETITION, SYSTEMIC ACQUIRED RESISTANCE, EXCLUSION | Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. | Corn and soybean |
Plant Extracts | ||||
HEADS UP RTA SEED TRT®
| Saponins. Extract of Chenopodium quinoa | SYSTEMIC ACQUIRED RESISTANCE
| Corn—common rust | Corn (field and sweet) |
Soybean—Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp., and sudden death syndrome | Soybean | |||
Wheat—seedling diseases caused by Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. | Wheat | |||
REGALIA CG®
| Extract of Reynoutria sachalinensis (giant knotweed) | INDUCTION OF PLANT DEFENSE | Oilseed crops—Alternaria leaf spot, anthracnose, bacterial pustule, bacterial speck, boll rots, brown rot, Cercospora spp., downy mildew, leaf spots, Phoma blight, pod and stem blight, powdery mildew, stem rot, white mold, and others | Oilseed crops |
TIMOREX® | Extract from tea tree oil | MULTIPLE EFFECTS ON PATHOGENS Including INHIBITS SPORE GERMINATION AND INFECTION, SYSTEMIC ACQUIRED RESISTANCE | Cereal grains—bacterial blight/streak, blast, brown leaf spot, Cercospora spp., downy mildew, Fusarium head blight, powdery mildew, Rhizoctonia spp., smut, southern leaf blight, and stem rots
Soilborne diseases—damping off, seedling blights, root and crown diseases caused by Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp., Sclerotinia spp., and Verticillium spp.
| Cereal grains |
GuardA®
| Extract from thyme | ANTIBIOSIS | Cereal grains—bacterial blight and streak, brown rot/leaf spots and smuts, powdery mildew, rust, Septoria leaf spot, sheath spot and blight, smut, and stem rot | Cereal grains |
Corn—anthracnose leaf blight, eye spot, gray leaf spot, northern leaf blight, northern leaf spot, rusts, and southern leaf blight | Corn | |||
Cotton—Alternaria leaf spot, anthracnose, Ascochyta blight, Cercospora blight and leaf spot, Diplodia boll rot, Fusarium spp., hard lock, leaf spot, Phoma blight, Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia spp., rust, Stemphyllium leaf spot, and Verticillium spp. | Cotton | |||
Oilseed crops—bacterial pustule, bacterial speck, brown spot, Cercospora leaf spot, downy mildew, pod and stem blight, and white mold | Oilseed crops | |||
*Developed by Arizona Cotton and Research Council
**Limited State Approval
Type/Name
| Active Ingredient(s) and Strain | Activity | Targeted Diseases | Crops |
Miscellaneous | ||||
Systemic Resistance Inducer Romeo®**
| Cerevisane (cell walls of Saccharomyces cerevisiae) Strain LAS117 | SYSTEMIC RESISTANCE INDUCER | Multiple targets including: Alternaria spp., apple scab, black sigatoka, blossom blight, Botrytis spp., brown rot, downy mildew, fire blight, late blight, Phytophthora spp., powdery mildew, Rhizoctonia spp., and sour rot | Multiple categories: Berries and small fruits Tree fruits and nuts Vegetables
|
Plant-Incorporated Protectants RNAi-based biofungicide Papaya ringspot virus resistance gene | Rainbow papaya (Carica papaya L.) Papaya ringspot virus coat protein gene in X17-2 papaya
| RNAi | Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) | Papaya |
Bacteriophage AGRIPHAGE-CITRUS CANKER** | Bacteriophage active against Xanthomonas citri subsp citri | PARASITISM | Citrus canker (Xanthomonas citri) | Citrus— orange, grapefruit, pumelo, lemon, lime, tangerine, tangelo, and kumquat |
*Limited State Approval
**Approved In California Only
Terms Related to Biopesticides | Definition |
|---|---|
Antibiosis | Production of antibiotic substances or toxins that impact pathogens |
Biochemicals | Naturally occurring chemical substances derived from living organisms such as semiochemicals, plant extracts, minerals, plant growth regulators, organic acids. |
Biobased Fertilizers Biofertilizers | A type of fertilizer that contains living microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, that enhance soil fertility and promote plant growth. |
Biofungicide | A biofungicide is a type of pesticide derived from living organisms or their byproducts, used to control fungal diseases in plants. |
Biological Products Biological Control Products | Biofertilizers, biostimulants, biological control products (including biopesticides) |
Biopesticide | A biopesticide is a type of pesticide derived from natural materials or organisms that are used to control pests, including insects, weeds, and pathogens. |
Biostimulant | Products containing naturally occurring substances and/or microbes that are used to stimulate plant growth, enhance resistance to plant pests and reduce abiotic stress. |
Biotechnology | Biotechnology is a field of science that involves the use of biological processes, organisms, or their components to develop and create innovative products or technologies. It encompasses various techniques such as genetic engineering, manipulation of DNA, and the modification of living organisms for applications in fields such as agriculture, medicine, and industry. |
Competition | Competes with the pathogen for nutrients, space, and infection sites. |
Conventional pesticide | Also known as synthetic pesticides. A chemical substance that is artificially created or manufactured to control, repel, or eliminate pests, including insects, weeds, and pathogens. These pesticides are chemically formulated and may contain active ingredients that are not naturally occurring in the environment. |
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) | A federal agency of the US government responsible for safeguarding human health and the environment. The EPA develops and enforces regulations and policies related to environmental protection, pollution prevention, and conservation. |
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) | A US federal law that regulates the registration, distribution, sale, and use of pesticides to ensure their safe and effective handling and protect human health and the environment. |
Federal Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 | A US federal law that established the national standards for organic agriculture and the certification process for organic food products. It defines the criteria and regulations that must be met for a product to be labeled and sold as “organic” in the US. |
Fertilizer Act and Regulations (Canadian Food Inspection Agency – CFIA) | The Federal Fertilizers Act and Regulations requires that all regulated fertilizer and supplement products imported into or sold in Canada must be safe for humans, plants, animals, and the environment. |
Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) | A technical group that 1) Provides guidelines on the use of fungicides to reduce the risk of development of fungicide resistance; 2) Recommends procedures for fungicide resistance studies; 3) Identifies existing and potential fungicide resistance; and 4) Provides information on fungicide resistance. |
Induced plant host resistance | Triggers the plant’s natural defense mechanism in response to a pathogen’s presence or attempt to infect which is often called Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR). |
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Integrated Crop Management (ICM) | A holistic approach that combines multiple strategies and methods to manage pests in an environmentally friendly and economically sustainable manner. |
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) | An organism whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering techniques, resulting in the introduction of specific desirable traits or characteristics. |
Macroorganisms | A term used to describe a living organism that is large enough to be visible to the naked eye without the aid of magnification. Examples include insects, mites, and some nematodes. |
Microbials | EPA: Consist of a microorganism (bacterium, fungus, virus, protozoan) as the active ingredient. Additional Definition: bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans, nematodes, and yeast. |
Mode of Action Site of Action | The specific biochemical or physiological mechanism by which it acts to control or eliminate pests. It describes how the pesticide interacts with the target organism, such as insects, weeds, or pathogens, at the molecular level to disrupt their normal functions, leading to their suppression, growth inhibition, or death. |
Mycoparasite | An organism with the ability to parasitize fungi. |
Organic Federal Organic Foods Production Act 1990 National Organic Program National Organic Program Rule National List Organic Certification | Refers to a system that relies on natural and sustainable practices to grow crops and raise livestock. Organic farming avoids the use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and growth hormones. |
Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) | A non-profit organization that provides independent third-party verification and certification for products intended for use in organic agriculture and processing. OMRI evaluates and approves inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, livestock supplements, and other agricultural products to determine their compliance with organic standards set by USDA National Organic Program (NOP). |
Parasitism | When an organism directly attacks a pathogen (viruses controlling bacteria, bacteriophages; bacteria controlling fungi, mycophagy; fungi controlling fungi, mycoparasitism). |
Pest Mangement Regulatory Agency Pest Control Products Act PMRA Pesticide Label Search | Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) is responsible for administering the Pest Control Products Act which regulates the products used for the control of pests in Canada. Label search: https://pr-rp.hc-sc.gc.ca/ls-re/index-eng.php. |
Pesticide resistance | The ability of pests, such as insects, weeds, or pathogens, to tolerate or survive exposure to pesticides that were previously effective in controlling them. |
Phytotoxicity | The harmful or toxic effects of a substance, such as a pesticide or chemical, on plants. |
Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) | Genetically modified plants that have been engineered to produce their own pesticides or insecticidal substances. These substances are derived from genes introduced into the plant’s genome, enabling it to defend itself against specific pests or pathogens. |
Plant Inoculant Products | EPA: Plant inoculant products are products “consisting of microorganisms to be applied to the plant or soil for the purpose of enhancing the availability or uptake of plant nutrients through the root system”
These are exempt from FIFRA registration as they are not considered pesticides. 40 CRF 152.6(g)(2) |
Plant Nutrient Products Macronutrients and Micronutrients | EPA: Plant nutrient products are products “consisting of one or more macronutrients or micronutrient trace elements necessary to normal growth of plants and in a form readily useable by plants”. These are exempt from FIFRA registration as they are not considered pesticides. 40 CRF 152.6(g)(1) |
Resistance | Ability of a plant to withstand or tolerate the attack of pests, diseases, or environmental stresses without suffering significant damage or yield loss. |
Rhizosphere | The soil that surrounds and is influenced by the roots of a plant. |
Semiochemicals Pheromones Allelochemicals Allomones Kairomones | Chemical substances released by organisms as signals to communicate with others of the same or different species. These chemical signals play a crucial role in the interactions between organisms, including attracting mates, marking territories, warning of danger, or attracting or repelling pests. |
Soil Amendment Products | EPA: Soil amendment products are products “containing a substance or substances intended for the purpose of improving soil characteristics favorable for plant growth.”
These are exempt from FIFRA registration as they are not considered pesticides. 40 CRF 152.6(g)(3) |
Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) | A plant defense mechanism that provides enhanced resistance to a broad range of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. SAR is induced when a plant is exposed to a pathogen or certain elicitors, which trigger a cascade of physiological and biochemical responses. These responses lead to the production and mobilization of defense compounds throughout the plant, providing systemic protection against future infections. |
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Organic Program (NOP) | A regulatory program established by USDA to define and enforce national organic standards for the production, handling, and labeling of organic agricultural products. USDA NOP sets the guidelines for certifying organic farms and businesses, ensuring that they follow strict regulations regarding the use of synthetic pesticides, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and other prohibited substances. The program also regulates the labeling and marketing of organic products to protect consumers and maintain the integrity of the organic industry. |
Authors
Carol Pilcher, Iowa State University; Martin Chilvers, Michigan State University; Travis Faske, University of Arkansas; Andrew Friskop, North Dakota State University; Alyssa Koehler, University of Delaware; Daren Mueller, Iowa State University; Adam Sisson, Iowa State University; Darcy Telenko, Purdue University; Albert Tenuta, Ontario Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Rural Affairs; and Kiersten Wise, University of Kentucky.
Citation:
Pilcher, C., Chilvers, M., Faske, T., Friskop, A., Koehler, A., Mueller, D., Sisson, A., Telenko, D., Tenuta, A., and Wise, K. 2023. Biopesticides for Crop Disease Management. Crop Protection Network. CPN 4010. https://doi.org/10.31274/cpn-20230919-0
Reviewers
James Buck, University of Georgia; Jerry Duff, Agrithority; and Eric Tedford, Summit Agro.
Images
Photographers are listed alongside images appearing throughout this work.
Illustrations
Keaton Hewitt, Emily Poss, and Renee Tesdell, copyright Iowa State University Integrated Pest Management Program.
References
Ansari, M.A. 2021. Biopesticide Registration: Difficulties and Challenges Within the Industry. AgNews. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Bayer Crop Protection. 2020. Contans WG Biological Fungicide. Specimen Label. EPA Reg. No. 264-1174. Bayer CropScience LP, St. Louis, MO. Distributed by Sipcam Agro USA. Article
California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA). 2023. CA State Organic Program. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
China Ministry of Agriculture. 2017. Data Requirements for Pesticide Registration. Announcement No. 2569. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Data Bridge. 2022. Global Biofungicides Market-Industry Trends and Forecast to 2029. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Dunham Trimmer® 2015. Biostimulants and Biocontrol: A Sustained Pace of Mergers and Acquisitions. Products and Trends. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2018. Active Ingredients Eligible for Minimum Risk Pesticide Products (Updated December 2015). Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2003. Labeling of Pesticide Products Under the National Organic Program. Pesticide Registration (PR) Notice 2003-1. Accessed May 25, 2023. Article
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2022a. What are Biopesticides? Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2022b. Biopesticide Active Ingredients. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2022c Draft Guidance for Plant Regulator Products and Claims, Including Plant Biostimulants. Accessed August 21, 2023. Article
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2022d Importing and Exporting Pesticides and Devices. Accessed August 21, 2023. Article
European Commission 2023. European Commission, Plant Division, Pesticides, EU Pesticides Database. Active Substances, Safeners, and Synergists. Accessed May 24, 2023. Article
Federal Register. 2000. Title 7—Agriculture, Part 205—National Organic Program, G—Administrative. The National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances. Accessed March 14, 2023. Article
Federal Register. 2008. Title 40—Protection of Environment, Chapter 1—Environmental Protection Agency, Subchapter E—Pesticide Programs, Part 152—Pesticide Registration and Classification Procedures. Subpart 152.6 Substances Excluded from Regulation by FIFRA. Accessed May 25, 2023. Article
Fertilizers Act and regulations (R.S.C, 1985, c. F-10) – Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Article
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO). 2017. International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management. Guidelines for the Registration of Microbial, Botanical, and Semiochemical Pest Control Agents for Plant Protection and Public Health Uses. Accessed May 24, 2023. Article
Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC). 2023. FRAC. Accessed 9.10.2023. Article
Isakeit, T., Allen, T., Chilvers, M., Faske, T., Freije, A., Mueller, D., Price, T., Smith, D., Tenuta, A., Wise, K., and Woloshuk, C. 2016. Using Atoxigenics to Manage Aflatoxin. Crop Protection Network. CPN-2005. Article / Google Scholar
Mueller, D., Wise, K., Bradley, C., Sisson, A., Smith, D., Hodgson, E., Tenuta, A., Friskop, A., Conley, S., Faske, T., Sikor,a E., Giesler, L., and Chilvers, M.. 2021. Fungicide Use in Field Crops Web Book. Crop Protection Network. CPN 4008. Article
Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI). 2023. OMRI Products List Sorted by Company. Accessed May 25, 2023. Article
Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) – Health Canada. 2001. Regulatory Directive: Guidelines for the Registration of Microbial Pest Control Agents and Products (DIR2001-02). Article
Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) - Health Canada. 2002. Regulatory Directive: The PMRA Initiative for Reduced-Risk Pesticides (DIR2002-02). Article
Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) – Health Canada. 2012. Guidelines for the Registration of Non-Conventional Pest Control Products (DIR2012-01). Article
Smith, D., Bradley, C., Chilvers, M., Esker, P., Malvick, D., Mueller, D., Peltier, A., Sisson, A., Wise, K., Tenuta, A., and Faske, T. 2020. An Overview of White Mold. CPN 1005. Article
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 2023a. USDA AMS National Organic Program. Accessed 3.14.2023. Article
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 2023b. USDA APHIS Plant Health Permits. Accessed August 21, 2023. Article
Wang, J. 2021. Biopesticide Active Ingredients Get Policy Support for Entrance into Chinese Market. Accessed May 14, 2023. Article
Sponsors
This educational resource was made possible by contributions from the North Central Integrated Pest Management Center; the Grain Farmers of Ontario; and the United States Department of Agriculture - National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA).
This information in this publication is only a guide, and the authors assume no liability for practices implemented based on this information. Reference to products in this publication is not intended to be an endorsement to the exclusion of others that may be similar. Individuals using such products assume responsibility for their use in accordance with current directions of the manufacturer.
Earn Certified Crop Advisor CEUs after reading this book. Successfully complete the Chapter 1, Chapter 2, Chapter 3, Chapter 4, Chapter 5, and Chapter 6 quizzes for six CEUs. Each chapter has a corresponding quiz at Crop Protection Network CCA CEU page.