An Analysis of Some Illustrated Books by Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) in the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice

The collection of Japanese prints, albums and illustrated books (ehon) in the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice is the result of the last stop in Japan of a journey to the Far East of Prince Henry Bourbon-Parma, Count of Bardi and his wife Adelgunde of Bragança, during the years 1887-1889. The gathering of more than thirty thousand objects became the core of the present collection. Among these there are about 500 illustrated books of famous ukiyoe masters, surimono, and colour prints nishikie. The creation of catalogue entries in Japanese and Italian and the analysis of each print reveals an amazing quantity of unpublished ukiyoe masterpieces and allows a division into different groups according to the subject matter. At the same time, this distinction into different genres shows an interesting tendency in the formation of the collection together with a possible new classification of the prints themselves. This study aims to shed a new light on this particular collection while focusing on a series of illustrated books by Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1848). Among these the famous volumes of the Manga, the illustrated books on warriors, an unusual album with some prints from the One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji and a selection from the five volumes dedicated to teach the artisans how to draw all kind of decorations.


Introduction
The collection of Japanese prints, albums and illustrated books (ehon 絵本) 1 in the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice is the result of the last stop in Japan of a journey to the Far East of Prince Henry Bourbon-Parma, Count of Bardi and his wife Adelgunde of Bragança, during the years 1887-89. 2 The gathering of more than thirty thousand objects became the core of the present collection (Spadavecchia Aliffi 1990). Among these, there are about 500 illustrated books of famous ukiyoe 浮世絵 masters, surimono 刷物, and colour prints (nishikie 錦絵).
A joint project between the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice and the Art Research Center (ARC) of Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto in collaboration with the Department of Asian and North African Studies, University of Venice, allowed the creation of a digital database of all Japanese printed materials owned by the Museum. The final survey shows that there are 727 single sheets ukiyoe prints (for a total 860 images) and 276 illustrated books (for a total of 12,200 images) (Akama 2013). 3 The creation of catalogue entries of each work -in Japanese and Italian -reveals an amazing quantity of unpublished ukiyoe masterpieces. 4 The most represented artists being Utagawa Kunisada 歌川 国貞 (Toyokuni III 三代豊国) (1786-1865), followed by Andō (Utagawa) Hiroshige I 安藤 (歌川) 広重 (1797-1858), Utagawa Kuniyoshi 歌川国 吉 (1798-1861), Utagawa Kunisada II 二代歌川国貞 (1823-1880), Kikukawa Eizan 菊川英山 (1787-1867), Tsukioka Yoshitoshi 5 月岡芳年 (1839-1892), Katsushika Hokusai 葛飾北斎 (1760-1849) and many others.
The aim of this paper is to try to present some of these materials with a special focus on Hokusai's illustrated books.
The analysis of the prints allowed a division into different groups according to their subject matter: yakushae 役者絵 (actor prints), mushae 武者絵 (warriors prints), bijin 美人 (female beauties), meisho 名所 (famous places), kachōe 花鳥絵 (images of nature) and Genjie 源氏 絵 (parody of the Tale of Genji). This distinction into different genres shows an interesting tendency in the formation of the collection that could lead to a possible new classification of the prints themselves.  Thousand Crafts Illustrated, vol. I inv. no. 2856, vol. II inv. no. 2857, vol. III inv. no. 2855, vol. IV inv. no. 2854, vol. V inv. no. 2853) inspired by Hokusai's ehon probably copied or produced by one of his pupil called Katsushika Taito II (二代葛飾戴斗). 10 Before entering into some aspects of these specific illustrated books, I will introduce briefly one of the images from the 18 pages that compose the copy of the Suikogaden 水滸画伝 (inv. no. 2876) [ fig. 2]. 11 10 See also Vesco 2013. 11 The peculiarity of this album is the sequence of the images that is an arbitrary selection from the many books originally illustrated by Hokusai. The Shinpen suikōgaden was published with Hokusai's illustrations and Kyokutei Bakin's text for the first part, first section, that is to say, vols. 1-6 in 1805; part I, section II, vols. 7-11 in 1807. The publication continued with Hokusai's illustrations but with Takai Ranzan's text, part III, vols. 22-31;part IV, vols. 32-41;part V, vols. 42-51;part VI, 52-61 in 1835. From volume 62 to volume 91 Hokusai passed the illustration job to his pupil Taito II. The tale is inspired by a famous story of Chinese legendary twelfth century heroes celebrated in the Ming-Dynasty (1368-1644) Chinese novel Shui hu zhuan 水滸伝. 12 The Japanese translation used by Hokusai as an inspiration for his album is due to Kyokutei Bakin 曲亭馬琴 (1767-1848) substituted later by Takai Ranzan (1762-1838) 高井蘭山 and composed of 61 volumes completed later till volume 91, by Hokusai's pupil Hokusai Taito II. 13 After an introduction with the date of publication: first month (shōgatsu 正月), year of the dragon (hinoe tatsu toshi 丙辰歳), third year of Ansei era 安政三 (1856), the volume opens with the image of an enormous snake whose body becomes the frame for a picture where a big tiger with an open mouth is frightening a Chinese warrior. 14 To emphasize the dramatic situation, the man -hands on his 12 The Shui hu zhuan (Water Margin), also known in the West as Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men are Brothers or The Marshes of Mount Liang, was based on the adventures of the outlaw Song Jiang 宋江 and his 108 companions (called the 36 "Heavenly Spirits" and the 72 "Earthly Demons"). The group acted in the Huainan 淮南 region and surrendered to the Song 宋 government in 1121. The story was written in XIV century and attributed to Shi Nai'an 施耐庵 (1296-1372). The novel opens with the story of the release of the 108 Spirits that had been imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise (bi xi 龜趺) and of the liberation of one of the nine sons of the Dragon King who is depicted as a dragon with a shell of a turtle. The episode derives from the Daoist concept that each person's destiny is strictly tied to a "Star of Destiny" (宿星). In the story the 108 Stars of Destiny are representing 108 demonic overlords who were banished by the deity Shangdi 上帝. Since their expulsion, the 108 Stars repented and soon after their accidental release from their place of confinement, they were reborn in this world as 108 heroes whose life was devoted, from that time on, to defend the cause of justice. They are divided into the 36 Heavenly Spirits (天罡三十六星) and 72 Earthly Fiends (地煞七十二星).
In Japan, Shui hu zhuan was first translated around 1757, when the first volume of an early Suikoden (Water Margin) was printed. As early as 1773, Takebe Ayakari 建部綾足 adapted it in his Japanese Water Margin (本朝水滸伝 Honchō suikoden) soon followed, in 1783, by Women's Water Margin (女水滸伝 Onna suikoden) and Santō Kyōden's 山東京 伝 1801 Chūshingura Water Margin (忠臣蔵水滸伝 Chūshingura suikoden). In 1805, Kyokutei Bakin published a Japanese translation of the Water Margin that was illustrated by Hokusai. The book, called the New Illustrated Edition of the Suikoden (新編水滸画伝 Shinpen Suikogaden) had such a great success during the Edo period (1615-1868) that it created a real "Suikoden" vogue. In 1827, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, was commissioned by the publisher Kagaya (Kichiemon) Kichibei 加賀屋吉右衛門・吉兵衛 (ca. 1815-1850) of the Seiseidō 青盛堂 firm, to produce a series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 heroes. The series called Tsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori 通俗水滸伝 豪傑百八人之壹人 (108 Heroes of the Water Margin) published between 1827 and 1830 brought Kuniyoshi to fame. Thanks to the positive response of the public and the consequent commercial success of Kuniyoshi's series, other ukiyoe artists were commissioned to draw the same subject. Among these, Yoshitoshi designed around 1866-1867 a series of 50 prints in chūban size 中判 (medium size print): (25/26 × 17/19 cm), which looked darker than Kuniyoshi's and featuring monsters and strange ghosts.
13 On Edo period publication see Konta 1974;Nakada 1950. 14 The episode is told in the first chapter of Shui hu zhuan in which Marshal Hong is terrified after the sudden apparition of a giant snake and a big tiger while on his way through the mountain. Hong Xin 洪信 was a Grand Marshal (太尉) sent by Emperor Renzong 宋仁宗 to seek Celestial Master Zhang to help to combat a terrible plague that was affecting the region. Hong Xin successfully completed his mission and before re-head -curves his body in a completely unnatural "C" shape (inv. no. 2876-03) [ fig. 3]. The images of this album, differently from the original by Hokusai, are not only printed with black sumi 墨, but with brilliant colours like green, yellow, light blue and red.

Warriors Album
In the collection of the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice there are two volumes dedicated to warriors. They are surprisingly well preserved and of a wonderful print quality. Around mid-1830s Hokusai produced a trilogy of mushae of a very high quality both in the design and in the details of the characters.
turning to the capital he decided to visit the temple near where the Master resided and without been noticed, released the 108 demons that had been trapped in a secret chamber for centuries. The demons spread out throughout the land after their release and are reborn in the so-called "108 Stars of Destiny". The legend tells that it seemed that Hong Xin's action was predestined to the point that a stone tablet that stood on the location where the demons were imprisoned had the words "Opens when Hong (Xin) arrives" (遇洪而開) carved on it.
My special thanks to Riccardo Fracasso (Ca' Foscari University, Venice) for the precious information on some details of the original text of Shui hu zhuan.  Calza (1999) suggests an interesting theory stating that the group of books is not a trilogy but a tetralogy being therefore composed of four volumes, including also Ehon wakan Katsushikaburi 画本和漢葛 15 The cover of the Museum of Oriental Art copy says only Ehon sakigake zen 絵本 魁 全 (Complete volume of Ehon sakigake) omitting the reference to wakan 和漢 (Japan and China). For a study on Wakan ehon sakigake see Fagioli 2010.
16 Ehon wakan no homare according to Hillier (1980) was apparently designed first, but not printed until 1850, the year after Hokusai's death. No copy of the book is known with a colophon date earlier than 1850 and the title page inside the front cover also bears the same date. It is possible that the three books were ready for publication at the same time in 1836, but for different reasons like a falling-off in public demand, or the difficult socio-economic situation, the publication of this volume was postponed. The fact that the block-cutter of Ehon wakan no homare was Egawa Sentarō 江川仙太郎 son of the famous Egawa Tomekichi 江川留吉 -the engraver of the other two volumes -further corroborates the hypothesis of 1850 as the publication date. 飾振 (Chinese and Japanese Heroes Illustrated in Katsushika style). Without entering into the details of this distinction, that is still matter of debate among scholars, let's consider closely the two volumes in the Italian collection. Both are in the classical ehon format with a watoji 和綴じ (Japanese style) binding, meaning that a printed sheet is folded in two, with the external margins bound together in the internal margin of the book. Wakan ehon sakigake measures 22.6 × 15.7 cm 17 and it is a monochrome print signed nanajūnana sai zen Hokusai aratame gakyō rōjin Manji hitsu 七十七歳先北斎改画狂老人卍筆 (at the age of seventy-seven Hokusai changed in Manji the old man mad about painting) carved by Egawa Tomekichi 江川留吉, 18 with a "Fuji" seal and published, as specify in the colophon, in Ōsaka 大阪, Nagoya 名古屋 and Edo 江戸 in the eight month of Tenpō 天保 era (1836)  Worth noticing is that the copy owned by the Venetian Museum of Oriental Art has a peculiar page composition: the preface is taken from the original Ehon musashi abumi that was designed by Hokusai. The second page of the Venetian copy (inv. no. 2877-03) has part of the preface of Ehon musashi abumi, on the right page and the first image of the same album, on the left. As for the colophon, there is an interesting mixture between the two albums: on the right the original page of Ehon musashi abumi, followed by the real colophon of Wakan ehon sakigake (inv. no. 2877-33) [ fig. 5] with the presentation of the volume itself and the announcement of Musashi abumi and Katsushikaburi. What contributes to create the complex order of this album is the fact that the final double page of the colophon, at the end of the volume entitled Ehon sakigake, is again the collation of two different pages from Ehon musashi abumi. The original block cut for the colophon of Wakan ehon sakigake shows on the right page Bingo no Saburō Takanori 備後の三郎高徳, known for his fidelity to the Emperor Go Daigo 後醍醐天皇, carving on the trunk of a tree the date and Hokusai's signature: Tenpō roku kinoto hitsuji dōshi shi gatsu 天保六 乙羊年四月 (Tenpō era six kinoto, year of the goat) | yowai shichijūroku zen Hokusai Iitsu aratame 齢七十六前北齋為一改 (at the age of seventy-six before Hokusai changed in Iitsu) | Gakyō rōjin Manji hitsu 画狂 老人卍筆 (painted by the old man mad about painting). The engravers are Sugita Kinsuke 杉田金助 and Egawa Tomekichi 江川留吉.
Ehon musashi abumi 19 measures 18.6 × 13.0 cm the technique remains the same (monochrome print) but the publication is only in The Venetian copy of Ehon musashi abumi is divided into two volumes and has only the first part of the original preface in a shape similar to a label with a crane flying over the title and the indication of the date; it has no colophon and it ends with the image of Akugenda 悪源 太 (Minamoto Yoshihira 源義平) in the form of Raijin 雷神, the God of Thunder, who is typically depicted with fierce and aggressive facial expressions, standing atop a cloud, flying up in the sky, usually holding taiko 太鼓 drums that he plays to create the sound of thunder. Raijin holds large hammers in his hands that he uses to play the drums. Sometimes he is depicted with three fingers on each hand which are said to represent the past, the present and the future.
20 The fact that the volume was published seven months after Wakan Ehon sakigake demonstrates that there was a great demand of this kind of works. The rendering of warriors and armours is less detailed than the previous volume. It could seem strange that a famous ukiyoe artist as Hokusai put so much energy in the production of mushae and especially in such a peaceful time like the Tokugawa 徳川 period (1600-1868), but these volumes had such a great success that the market required the publication of two volumes in the very same year. 21 The request of images of heroes of the past, whose adventures had become legendary, were appealing especially because they referred to very important virtues of the samurai class such as courage, loyalty, moral rectitude and ethical behaviour (Vesco 2019). 22 Those who appreciated themes connected to the more classical ukiyoe production (images of kabuki actors, courtesans bijin, famous places, meishoe and nature kachō) were also very fond of stories related to warriors and especially Japanese warriors, because in the comparison with continental warriors (Chinese) their national pride was greatly enhanced.  In the warriors albums there is a strong attention to the details of the movements of the samurai and it does not matter if they wear very heavy armours or are engaged in difficult fights. Each gesture is fluid and the body moves in a natural way [ fig. 6]. 24 Hokusai is able to catch the dramatic moment in the same way he did while depicting the climax of the action frozen in what is called mie (見え or 見得) of the actors on the stage. 25 Ehon musashi abumi is used also as an excuse to employ in a very particular way the vertical composition on a double page so that the main character is exactly the centre of the image [ fig. 7]. 26 The copy owned by the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice is mounted into two volumes (inv. nos. 2849-2850) both formed by 17 double pages. The first volume has 15 images plus two pages with little thin silver inserts [ fig. 8], the second, again, with 15 images, but with the title and the date as first page [ fig. 4].
In both albums single images are alternated to those on a double page without a clear logic. A close comparison with the work commissioned directly to Hokusai shows that the images in the Italian volumes do not follow the order originally decided by the artist. On top of this, we can notice that some images are taken from Wakan ehon sakigake and mixed with those of Ehon musashi abumi.
In this volume the threatening facial expressions of the warriors and the mixing of their armours tend to be more stylized, nevertheless, the great dynamism of the heroes with their quick movements to escape the enemies contribute to the strong pathos of the story [ fig. 9].
Many of the legends that fascinated the public of the period are well depicted in this volume; among these, for instance, the story of General Hōjō Tokimasa 北条時政 (1138-1215) receiving divine inspi-24 This print shows the priest Ichirai 一来 (died in 1180) and his companion-in-arms Tsutsui Shōmyō 筒井淨妙 fleeing from the Taira 平 forces across the Uji bridge 宇治橋, from which Minamoto Yorimasa 源頼政 had torn up the planking hoping to stop the enemy. Ichirai's jump across the beams is proverbial. Hokusai choses the heroic escape to underline the dynamism of the scene.
25 Mie is a representative position used by kabuki actors to express strength and power. They take exaggerated positions, in what is called aragoto 荒事 style. The actor literally freezes for a few moments, in order to focus the audience's attention on a particularly important or expressive part of the representation. The term used to indicate these poses in Japanese literally means 'observation'. The purpose of a mie is to show the emotions of a character at their peak. While taking the pose, the actor opens his eyes wide and, in case the emotion to represent is anger or fury, conventionally crosses them. See Earle 1956;Gerstle 2000. 26 Minamoto Yorie 源頼家 was the eldest son of Minamoto Yoritomo 源頼朝 who succeeded his father as shōgun in 1202. Yorie quickly faced competition for power from his mother Hōjō Masako 北条政子 and her father Hōjō Tokimasa 北条時政 -which may explain why it took three years to establish himself as shōgun when his father died in 1199 -and was forced into exile in 1203. A year later Yorie was assassinated, probably on Tokimasa's orders. 27 The legend is connected to the isle of Enoshima 江ノ島 that was considered a very spiritual environment. The proximity to Kamakura 鎌倉 made it an important historical place during the Kamakura period. The Kamakura period (1185-1333) was under the control of two clans: the Minamoto and the Hōjō. Minamoto no Yoritomo, who guided the Minamoto clan to gain the control of large parts of Japan relocated the capital to his home town of Kamakura. At that time, Hōjō Tokimasa who was the father-in-law and the main adviser of Minamoto no Yoritomo, had gone to Enoshima to worship and during his prayer, a heavenly being appeared in front of him telling that he had been a priest in a previous life and that his descendants would become rulers over the country and in fact, his descendants became rulers from 1199 to 1333. The heavenly being disappeared into the sea in the form of a dragon leaving three scales that would become the family crest of the Hōjō. The dragon is often depicted in the shape of a snake and is always connected to Benten 弁天 (Benzaiten 弁財天), one of the goddess of fortune. This is the form in which she is depicted in Hokusai's print.

639
I have suggested that this can be due to the fact that maybe Prince Henry Bourbon-Parma, Count of Bardi in the gathering of the objects of the collection was not able to buy the complete series of three volumes or the person who was in charge of compiling this volume was not aware of the existence of a third book. 32 Another important issue is that each image is chosen with the utmost care. Only well identified places with their names written in Hokusai's original prints are put in the particular order of the Venetian volume. Therefore, it is easy for the viewer to understand immediately which is the spot depicted. The result is nonetheless very charming and I think it fulfils the goal Hokusai aimed to: a tribute to the sacred mountain considered from all possible viewpoints.
32 It must be considered also that from 1907 to 1914 some books of the Bourbon collection were sold by the antiquarian Trau so there is the possibility that a volume could have been sold in that period. See Kumakura, Kreiner 2001;Spadavecchia Aliffi 1990.

Manga
The Museum of Oriental Art in Venice owns nine of the fifteen volumes that compose the complete series of the funny group of random sketches. We know that the publication began in 1814 and continued till 1875-78 after Hokusai's death (Michener 1958). Consequently, the problems connected to the attribution and the real aim of this work are not clear. We wonder whether all images are really by Hokusai and if so, we may ask if the order in which we observe them today is the real order Hokusai wanted (Bouquillard, Marquet 2007). In any case, the result is exactly what is suggested by the title: man 漫 (suggested by an idea, casual, unintentional) and ga 画 (picture, image). Apparently, there is not a logical classification of the subjects but more a free flow of ideas and sketches and an overwhelming curiosity towards every aspect of the world and of daily life. It is true that sometimes the sketches are grouped clearly according to a specific topic like: trees [ fig. 12] tures, waves, rain, birds, fish, and so on, but this seems more an exception than a rule. 34 Despite this lack of a systematic organisation and practical explanations on how a pupil should paint the subject, the Manga had an enormous success and a great diffusion all over the country (Nagata 1986-87). This is further evidence of the fascination of the pictorial image both for the amateur painter and for the general public. The endless hints given by these random sketches are also the reason for the success of the Manga in nineteenth and twentieth-century Europe (Breuer 2010;Berndt 2015;Ferretti Bocquillon 2018).
The nine volumes 35 of the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice were published posthumous in 1878 (Meiji 明治 11) in Nagoya by Katano Tōshirō 片野東四郎.
The cover of each volume has a wave-like motif typical of the Nagoya production, very different from the diamond-like pattern used in Edo.

Banshoku zukō
Banshoku zukō 萬職圖孝 (One Thousand Crafts Illustrated) is a group of five books of models for craftsmen. In the enormous didactic painting production by Hokusai the volumes of models are one of his favourite themes. Each volume of Banshoku zukō is formed of 35 pages and a closer look suggests that they can be classified as a new edition of Iitsu manga 為一漫画 of 1841, published again in 1850. 36 The same work was reprinted in 1880 with another title: Kachō sansui zukushi 花鳥山水尽 (Flowers, Birds, Landscape Illustrated) and as part of the two series Saiga zukushi 細画尽 (Miniatures Illustrated) and Hokusai zukushi 北斎尽 (Hokusai Illustrated) in 1860s-1870s. 37 In the first page of volume one near the title and the signature Katsushika Taito sensei ga 葛飾戴斗先生画 (painted by master Katsushika Taito) we can notice the design of a pipe decorated with a peony in full bloom and a roaring Chinese lion seated on his paws [ fig. 14 This image is very interesting because it shows the interest of a famous artist for the decoration of very common objects. It is the same process Hokusai used in the creation of another manual, in three volumes, addressed to artisans entitled Imayō setsukin [kushi kiseru] hinagata 今様櫛きん雛形 (今様櫛キセル) 雛形 (Models of Modern Combs and Pipes) printed in 1822-3 and signed zen Hokusai aratame Katsushika Iitsu 先北斎改葛飾為一, where he suggested all possible decorations for these items. Banshoku zukō is printed in black ink with the addition of a light pink in some pages that becomes a vivid red and a nice green in the third volume to finish with blue in the fifth volume.
The design of different decorations is proposed in many different ways: sometimes on a page divided into eight small squares or much closer to show a specific detail of the image. In some other cases the figure is surrounded by a circular form [fig. 15]. The subjects of the decoration are those Hokusai was very fond of. For instance, flying mythological dragons, tigers, fish, shells are depicted together with squirrels and birds. Cocks and hens, turtles, bamboo sprouts, cherry blossoms and landscapes complete the image of the various manifestations of Nature.
Some pages are dedicated exclusively to Chinese lions (shishi 獅 子), like in the Nisshin jōma 日進妖魔 (Daily Exorcisms), the group of more than 600 sketches (only 220 still extant today) painted daily like a powerful talisman against illness or a kind of prayer for a long life. This exercise kept Hokusai busy for an entire year from 1842 to 1843 (Izzard 1997). Particular interest is given in the fourth volume to the decorative motifs to embellish the guard of swords (tsuba 鍔) [ fig. 16]. Once again this demonstrates how these images were the source of inspiration for the artisans' class and the starting point for the creation of fashionable and up-to-date objects required by a growing and very demanding market and public.
The success was so great that in the colophon of the fifth volume there is the announcement for the forthcoming publication of a sixth volume that, unfortunately, never appeared [ fig. 17].

Conclusion
The preliminary survey of the rich collection of prints and illustrated books in the Museum of Oriental Art in Venice is a challenging opportunity to deepen our knowledge of ukiyoe and, at the same time, a precious chance for further study and research in the fascinating world of Japanese graphic art. The peculiar focus on what might seem a minor production, namely didactic painting manuals, of such a great artist as Hokusai was proved, instead, to be a stimulating task to give a new interpretation to some of his printed works. Far from being superficial examples of a mechanical 'how to do' method of drawing, Hokusai's albums inspired generations of beginners and expert painters alike.