A Comparative Review of Articles on Education of Patriotism: A Thematic Analysis*

Patriotism is an important and well-accepted value in educational institutions. As a civic virtue, it has always been included in education/training programs. This study aims to compare research articles on teaching of patriotism that were conducted in the last 20 years. The document analysis method was employed in the study for this purpose. The data were collected through the international databases e.g. Wiley, Jstore, Elsevier, Taylor&Francis. 218 articles were found by searching the keywords “patriotism”, “patriotic education”, and “teaching of patriotism”. Upon initial analysis, it was decided that 110 articles would serve the purpose of this study. Content analysis technique was employed to reveal patterns of the selected articles. The number of articles published on patriotic education in each countries, the publication dates of these articles and the comparison of these articles according to countries, purposes, is presented in this study. The paper at hand shows that only some articles have a critical perspective on patriotism. Implications is made based on results.


INTRODUCTION
Patriotism is included in the curricula of a considerable number of countries in the world. Especially as a civic virtue, attention is always given to patriotic education. In Turkey, since 1913 with a course named "Musahabbatı-ı Ahlakiye" (Keskin, 2008), the value of patriotism has always been one of the important objectives of social studies teaching. The importance that social studies teaching attributes to the value of patriotism is undoubtedly related to citizenship education because citizenship education is above all a process of developing a sense of belonging and patriotism enables a person to develop a psychological belonging to the country he lives in. This belonging becomes the basis of the rights and responsibilities that citizens are expected to undertake (Schumann, 2016).
Patriotic person identifies himself with the social groups around him and develops a loyalty to a larger group. This aspect of patriotism is particularly emphasized in the literature. Beader (2007) emphasized the sense of belonging and security that patriotism offers to the individual, while Bar-Tal (1993) drew attention to the dimension of feeling as a part of the group. Another important point is that patriotism has a role in shaping the social identity of an individual. The distinction between us / them is important in the formation of social identity. 'Us' is the circle in which the individual is in and identifies himself with. Patriotism introduces 'us'. The introduction itself marks the boundaries of the group as well as the "others" outside the boundaries. In this way, the feeling of "us" establishes psychological trust in the individual and protects him from possible anxieties (Bar-Tal, 1993). Although it is about the "other", the marginalization evoked by the concept of nationalism has not been matched with patriotism. As can be seen in the construction of the word patriotism, it is grounded on the love of one's homeland and loyalty to that homeland. It does not refer to an essentialist nation or race and in this respect, it is more inclusive .
However, the limits of the scope are national, not global. In fact, various definitions of patriotism (Curti, 1946, Westheimer, 2007Staub, 1997;Kahne & Middaugh, 2007) postulate different scopes. Military patriotism and social patriotism (Curti, 1946) deal with patriotism in different ways. The authoritarian patriot will probably criticize the democratic patriot (Westheimer, 2007). Similarly, a citizen who blindly adopts patriotism will not find constructive patriotism (Staub, 1997) or active patriotism (Kahne & Middaugh, 2007) satisfactory. Although this theorizing is only two-way, it is still useful since it conceptualizes patriotism. Therefore, two different varieties of patriotism can be mentioned: blind / military / authoritarian & democratic / social / constructive. The main elements that distinguish the two varieties are uncritical conformity and criticism (Schatz, Staub & Lavine, 1999). In blind, military, or authoritarian patriotism, national symbols and values are adopted without criticism and are seen above and beyond everything else. This variety of patriotism sees the state and the flag as the primary priority. Therefore, the concept of criticism includes danger or, at best, risk (Schatz et al., 1999;Kahne & Middaugh, 2007). On the other hand, the democratic / social / constructive variety takes criticism as an important requirement of patriotism. These two distinctive aspects of patriotism have been frequently addressed in international publications (Archard, 1999;Bar-Tal, 1993;Beader, 2007;Caballero, 1999;Curti, 1946, Westheimer, 2007Staub, 1997;Kahne & Middaugh, 2007).
Upon reviewing the literature on social studies teaching in Turkey, it was investigated that there is a scarcity of research related to different dimensions of patriotism. In the existing studies, "perception, view, and attitude" were focused on and the participants were three groups of people: teachers, pre-service teachers, and students. In studies with teachers (Yazıcı, Pamuk, & Yıldırım, 2016;Gümüş, 2016;Avcı, İbret, & Karasu Avcı, 2017;Yıldız, 2018;Demirok, 2019;Karaderili, 2019;Kurt, 2007;Öztürk, Malkoç & Ersoy, 2016;, teachers' views / perceptions regarding the meaning of patriotism and their attitudes were investigated. In studies conducted with pre-service teachers (Ersoy and Öztürk 2015;Karasu Avcı & İbret, 2016;Tarhan, 2019;Faiz & Karasu Avcı, 2020), the researchers investigated pre-service teachers' perceptions and attitudes towards patriotism, who were studying in social studies teaching, primary school teaching, and early childhood education departments. Finally, the third group of studies examined the views of teachers and students. These studies (Özcel, 2019;Bilginer, 2019;Avcı, 2015;Elban 2011;Kabaklı Çimen, 2017) examined students and teachers' definitions, views, and attitudes towards patriotism, who were at secondary school, high school, and university levels. A common feature of these studies is that they aim to reveal the meaning of the concept of patriotism through the eyes of the participants.
When the studies conducted in Turkey were reviewed, it was seen that comparative studies are rare. Another point that draws attention is that, as mentioned above, the existing studies only focused on perceptions, views, and attitudes. The exception to these two points is the doctoral dissertation of Yavuz (2018) and the study by Altıkulaç and Yontar (2019). Yavuz (2018) compared the social studies curriculums of 4 countries while Altıkulaç and Yontar (2019) compared social studies teachers' opinion of patriotism who working in USA or Turkey. Yavuz (2018) highlighted in the conclusion part of his dissertation that there is a need for comparative studies on patriotic education. This study aims to fill this gap by comparatively examining internationally published articles in the last twenty years.
Comparing the articles produced in the last 20 (2000-2020) years will make it possible to evaluate the studies on patriotic education from an international perspective. Revealing the distribution of the articles on patriotic education by country, the curve they have followed in the last 20 years, and the subjects on which they focus, has the potential to give a new perspective to the stakeholders. Another significance of this study is that it examines internationally published articles' problem statuses and their reasons. Examining the problem statements might give an idea about the researchers' perspectives on patriotic education and this would give readers an opportunity to approach patriotic education from a new and critical perspective. Following research questions were sought to answer in this study:

Research Questions
1. What is the frequency of studies on patriotic education between 2000-2020?
2. What is the course of studies on patriotic education between 2000-2020?
3. What are the objectives of the studies on patriotic education between the years 2000-2020?
4. What are the problem statuses of the studies on patriotic education between the years 2000-2020?

Limitations of the Study
The study is limited to the research articles published between 2000-2020 and indexed in Wiley, Jstore, Elsevier, Taylor & Francis databases. For this reason, studies conducted before 2000 and studies that do not focus on patriotic education / teaching are excluded from the scope of this study. Another limitation is that languages of the chosen articles are only English and Turkish, and this might cause the study to reflect more the contexts of Turkey, Britain, and North America. Studies on patriotic education that have been conducted outside Turkey and in languages other than English were not included in this study.

METHODOLOGY Method
The texts examined in this study were analyzed in accordance with the qualitative research method. The document analysis method was employed in the study for this purpose. The texts in the selected articles were subjected to thematic content analysis. Thematic content analysis is based on analyzing studies in a specific field and presenting them as themes and templates (Çalık & Sözbilir, 2014). Thematic content analysis is chosen for this study because it is suitable for the study's aim to examine internationally published articles on patriotic education according to specific criteria.

Data Collection
International databases (Wiley, Jstore, Elsevier, and Taylor &Francis) were used to access articles that were published during 2000-2020 on patriotic education. To be able to report both the recent trend and debates researchers decided to limit the timespan by 2000-2020. The databases selected since it is expected to gather articles as many as possible and these databases are respectful and accessible. These databases were searched with the keywords "patriotism", "patriotic education", and "teaching of patriotism". TITLE-ABS-KEY (patriotism) OR (patriotic education) OR (teaching of patriotism).
Upon this search, 218 articles were accessed based on criteria sampling strategy. Two researchers simultaneously examined these articles according to their suitability for the purpose of this study. It was made sure that these articles were appropriate in terms of their topic and sample. Firstly, articles on patriotic education that were conducted with participants at pre-school, elementary school, secondary school, high school, and university levels were selected, and the rest were eliminated. In the second phase, studies which used teacher, student, faculty member, parent, or curriculum as a research object or participant were selected and other studies that were not suitable for this purpose were excluded. After this screening process, 110 articles were included in the study.

Data Analysis and Credibility
The data analysis process started with the scanning of databases. The 218 articles accessed at the initial phase were exhaustively examined by the two researchers. During the examination process, it was aimed that related articles were in the scope of education / training and focused on patriotic education / training. As a result, 110 articles were found to be suitable for further analysis.

Figure 1: Steps in Data Collection and Analysis Process
The suitable articles were analyzed by transforming research questions into sub-questions and concretizing them (Table 1  1.The years in which frequency of studies focusing on patriotic education in the last 20 years has inreased were analyzed. 2.The years in which frequency of studies focusing on patriotic education in the last 20 yearrs has decreased were analyzed. Q. 3.
Aims of Studies focusing on patriotic education in the last 20 years were analyzed by purpose sentences. Q. 4.
Problem statuses in the theoretical sections of the studies focusing on patriotic education were analyzed.. Two researchers conducted cross-examinations at different times to prevent data loss. For the research questions to be fully reflected in the analysis process, each research question was detailed and restated as sub-questions. In the analyses that were made by considering sub-questions, also it is ensured that the codes and themes reflect the situation in the text, and they are realistic. After the analysis was completed, an expert opinion was taken, and the codes and themes were finalized in the light of the expert opinion.

FINDINGS
The articles examined within the scope of the study are presented under 4 titles: (I) articles distribution by country, (II) articles distribution according to years, (III) distribution of the objectives of the examined articles in the study by countries, and (IV) problem statuses of the examined articles.

Article Distribution by Country
First, distribution of articles on patriotic education by country has been examined to answer the question of "What is the distribution of studies on patriotic education in different countries between 2000-2020?". From this examination, 109 articles were selected, and their distribution is shown on Figure 2.

Country
When Figure 2 is examined, it can be seen that the majority of articles on the subject were published in the USA with 22 articles. Turkey comes in second with 21 articles. Since one of the inclusion criteria was to language of the paper (articles that are written only in turkish or english were examined), both USA based and Turkish based articles are numerous in terms of freaquency. Distribution of articles by country and number is as follows: Russia with 12 articles, Hong Kong and England with 8 articles, China with 5 articles, Poland and Southern Cyprus with 4 articles, Israel, Japan, Ukraine with 3 articles, Zimbabwe and Sweden with 2 articles, Singapore, Canada, Malaysia, Pakistan, Romania, Slovenia, Jordan, Austria, Indonesia, Finland, Netherlands, Hungary with 1 article each.

Article Distribution by Years
The articles published on patriotic education and training were examined within the scope of the second research question "What is the frequencey distribution of articles on patriotic education between 2000-2020?". Examined articles were classified according to a period of five years. The distribution of articles by years can be seen in Figure 3.
* The numbers has differed since one of the examined paper was comparasion of two countries' context.

Figure 3. The distribution of articles on patriotic education by years
When Figure 2 is examined, every five-year distribution shows an increasing trend since the 2000s. Although it is not possible to make a definite interpretation about the reason or reasons for this increase, it can be said that there is a remarkable increase. In Figure 2, it is observed that there are 5 articles between 2001-2005, 18 articles between 2006-2010, 41 articles between 2011-2015, and 42 articles between 2016-2020.

Distribution of Articles According to Their Objectives by Country
In this part, the researchers tried to answer the research question of "What are the objectives of the studies on patriotic education between the years 2000-2020?". As a result of the content analysis conducted within the scope of the research question, the articles were collected under five research purposes according to the countries. These five research objectives can be seen in Figure 4.  Figure 3 is examined, it can be seen that the articles and research produced in the context of patriotic education are grouped under five themes. Articles focusing on examining teachers', pre-service teachers', and students' perceptions and views have been the research question / objective of 39 articles in 5 different countries. The research objective of "what kind of patriotic education is adopted?" was investigated in 31 articles from 7 different countries. The studies that were carried out to discuss different patriotic possibilities (Blind / Constructive / Cosmopolitan) were reflected in 16 studies from 8 different countries. The studies that were conducted to examine the relationships between Patriotic Education, National Loyalty, Identity and Belonging are covered in 16 articles from 7 different countries. A total of 7 articles were published in 6 different countries to examine the Activities for Patriotic Education. It can be said that among the five research themes, perceptions and views of teachers, pre-service teachers, students were studied the most, and most of these articles came from Turkey and the USA, and the least number of articles came from Singapore.

Problem Statements of Articles
Problem statuses of the articles were analyzed according to the question of: "What are the problem statuses of the studies on patriotic education between the years 2000-2020?". These articles were presented under two main headings. Table 2. covers descriptive articles. The descriptive articles investigated the views and perceptions of pre-service teachers and teachers, elementary, secondary, and high school students, and both students and teachers. In Table 3, theoretically based articles are taken into consideration and grouped under 6 reasons / problem statemants.

Participants
Reason / Argument F Pre-service teachers and teachers --The responsibility of raising patriotic individuals rests with teachers and pre-service teachers. Therefore, it is necessary to examine their views. Thus, predictions can be made about what kind of patriotic education they will give.
-Globalization and technology affect the perception of patriotism. Therefore, the perceptions and opinions of pre-service teachers should be examined.
-It is necessary to examine the current perceptions of teachers and pre-service teachers to develop a constructive patriotic approach.
-Since there is little work in the literature, contribution should be made to the field by examining pre-service teachers' views.
-It is extremely important with which objective, content and approach the patriotism value is given.
-American Pledge of Allegiance should be critically discussed and teachers should be prepared for this.
-Teachers' views should be examined against the shift of patriotism to extreme nationalist tendencies.
14 3 2 2 2 1 1 Elementary, secondary, and high school students -For an education designed to instill patriotic value in students, their perceptions and views should be examined.
-In order to develop a patriotic education program that does not contradict a democratic citizenship approach, students' views and perceptions should be considered.
-Globalization and technology affect the perception of patriotism. Therefore, students' perceptions and views should be examined 6 4 2 Students (Secondary School) and Teachers -Patriotism should be taught as a controversial subject. Possibilities to achieve this should be sought in schools and classrooms.
-A critical attitude should be created towards American Pledge of Allegiance.

Themes
Reason / Argument f Raising National Awareness in Teaching of Patriotism -The integration of themes such as special days, anthems, oaths, common fate-themed course materials, important people and events in history into patriotic education should be examined.
-The national loyalty and patriotic feelings of students of different ethnic origins in heavily disciplined conditions such as military schools are worth examining for patriotism building. -Patriotic education in Israel has problems in covering non-Jewish Arab communities. It is important to develop an alternative to this situation.
-In a post-colonial Zimbabwe, what kind of citizenship and patriotic education was adopted to create a national identity is being discussed in the light of global and local facts. The Relationship of Patriotism, Education, and Ideology -It is necessary to reveal with a historical analysis how the discourse of legal authorities in education is constructed through educational programs and hidden curricula. Patriotism can also be used to produce this ideology.
-It is necessary to examine the patriotic individual construction through values in the course and children's books.
--The discourses of political authority in the course books should be presented within the framework of power and hegemony. Strengthening Coexistence and Pluralism -Patriotism and citizenship education provides political socialization of students. Therefore, in societies with a multicultural structure, an education policy should be adopted without excluding and marginalizing others. Instead of the discourse of one nation and common destiny, patriotism that is based on pluralistic citizenship should be established.

Strengthening
Constructive and Critical Patriotism -For the creation of a democratic and pluralistic society, a patriotic education that supports the development of constructive patriotism against ultra-nationalist tendencies is necessary. In this sense, careful education of patriotism, for example, patriotism as a civic value rather than a patriotism open to emotional agitation should be promoted. 9 When Table 2. is examined, it can be said that descriptive studies focus on the perceptions and views of the participants. The problem statements or research objectives of the articles that investigated pre-service and in-service teachers' perceptions and views revealed that the studies were mostly approached the issue with the mission of "raising individuals". In this way, the researchers tried to reveal what kind of individuals the teachers were trying to raise. Another reason for focusing on teachers' and pre-service teachers' views / perceptions is to analyze the reflections of globalization effects on teachers. Another point is that these studies tried to develop teachers' perceptions of constructive patriotism by investigating their current perceptions. These studies focus on producing solutions against extreme nationalist tendencies. Similar studies can be seen in the special case of the American Pledge of Allegiance as well. Finally, it aims to fill a gap with studies aiming to contribute to the field. In studies that examined students' perceptions and views, designing teaching programs for students was studied. Similarly, it has been tried to describe whether there are any traces of a change in the patriotic feelings of the youth with the effect of globalization.
When Table 3. is examined, it will be seen that the first theme is Raising National Awareness in Teaching of Patriotism. The studies that were carried out under this theme discussed the meanings of symbols that contribute to the process of patriotism building in teaching environments and military schools. These symbols are special days, anthems, oaths, important people, and events in history.
The ongoing debates around the concepts of "Globalization and Cosmopolitanism" were discussed under the second theme. Under the globalization process, this theme centers alternative patriotic approaches with their positive and negative aspects and evaluates the concepts of democratic citizenship, cultural values, locality within the framework of discussion. Another theme is the theme of "Identity, Belonging, Commitment in the Local and Global Context". A two-dimensional discussion is made under the relevant theme. First, how will local and national values coincide with the globalization process? Thus, how can a patriotic education synthesize the two be formulated? Second, what kind of a patriotic education can be given by considering the communities living under political authorities whose citizenship statuses differ? Discussion of the authority struggle between Hong Kong and China in the context of patriotic education and citizenship has a special place within the scope of these questions. Under the theme of Patriotism, Education and Ideology, the construction of ideological discourse in education such as education programs, hidden curriculum, discourse in textbooks, power, hegemony, was discussed in relation to patriotism. Under the theme of Strengthening Coexistence and Pluralism, the possibilities of building an inclusive patriotism that allows us to live together without excluding differences were discussed. Therefore, a patriotism based on a pluralistic citizenship approach is suggested. Under the last theme, Strengthening Constructive and Critical Patriotism, the possibilities of the substitution of a constructive patriotism against blind and extreme patriotism and nationalist approaches were discussed. It was discussed that a patriotism model that is in harmony with the values of democratic society should be presented to societies.

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND SUGGESTIONS
Teaching of patriotism is a significant field for social studies and citizenship education. Within the scope of this study, 110 articles that were published in the last 20 years (2000-2020) on patriotic education were analyzed and remarkable findings were obtained.
It is found that numbers of research on teaching of patriotism has increased considerably starting from 2000 to to present. The socio-political events that took place in the early 2000s (9/11, Iraq War, terrorist incidents) affected the educational environments (Wellenreiter, 2019). This might havemade the topic of patriotism a more popular subject of investigation over the years. This findings shows that both teaching of patriotism and social studies education is effected by social and political issues notably.
In other studies that coincide with the research results, it was seen that in Turkey (Faiz&Karasu Avcı, 2020), the USA (Gibbs, 2019), Russia (Sanina, 2019), Hong Kong (Chee, 2019), and the UK (Healy, 2019) patriotic education was examined more frequently, and it became a more popular research topic. Although this study has examined only articles in Turkish and English languages and this is a limitation, it can still be put forward that more studies have been found in aforementioned countries.
Examined research objectives and problem statementshows that there are two different trends in these countries. The studies that were conducted in Turkey, Russia, and the USA focused on participants' perceptions of patriotism and content of patriotic education. However, studies in the UK and Hong Kong are studies that problematize patriotic education and focus on its relationship with different concepts. This shows that the second group of studies has a more critical approach to patriotic education. The first group tends to emphasize the importance of patriotic education.
Especially in studies that were carried out in Turkey, the researchers have not been taking a critical approach towards patriotism. Overall trend is to examine quality of patriotic teaching or perceptions of stakeholders regarding the meaning of patriotism. As stated by Yavuz (2018), it is important to consider the concepts of human rights and respect for individual differences in teaching the concept of patriotism. It was observed that there are not enough studies in this direction. Similarly, Altıkulaç and Yontar (2019) suggested that the concepts of democracy and constructive patriotism should be discussed more in the literature. However, when the studies that are within the scope of this research is examined, it draws attention that there is a scarcity of research in Turkey that deals with democracy and patriotism together. Therefore, the scarcity of studies dealing with patriotism education / teaching as a controversial / multidimensional subject stands out. Similarly, alternative approaches to patriotism (such as critical, constructive, democratic patriotism) have been given little coverage in patriotic education / training research.
The research justifications of the articles that were examined within the scope of this study can be summarized in several points. Studies examining the perceptions and views of teachers, pre-service teachers, and students are aimed to predict what kind of patriotic individuals are being raised by looking at the current situation. The researchers aimed to reach this judgment based on the assumption that especially teachers' perceptions and views of patriotism will be reflected in education & teaching environments. Moreover, pre-service teachers were included in studies with the same assumption and the researchers aimed to determine their perception of patriotism. Another point that draws attention in the theoretical reasons is that it is based on the assumption that patriotism is built through education, and this process was tried to be analyzed and explained. Perceptions and opinions of stakeholders is significant without any doubt but it is also equally significant to discuss the patriotism in terms of current, public and global perspectives. Current, public and global perspectives dimensions of patriotism rarely discussed in teaching of patriotism literature.
The world's changing conditions affect patriotic education, and this brings up new discussions. Although changing world conditions are frequently mentioned in the theoretical parts of patriotism research, the effect of changing conditions on the perception of patriotism has rarely been reflected in research problems. Especially identity, belonging and citizenship are discussed only in spesific contexts (UK, USA, Hong Kong). On the other hand, current issues such as teaching of patriotism during war (Ben-Porath, 2020), the nature of relationship between citizenship and democracy training (Kahn, and Middaugh, 2007), patriotism as a controversial subject (Hand, 2011) have almost never been touched on in the problem statementof studies that were conducted in Turkey or Russia.
Patriotism is among the important values in civic and social studies education. In other words patriotism both effects and is effected by civic and social studies education. Also type, aim or directions of research on patriotism varies from country to country based on the educational agenda. Yet, when studies on patriotic education globally are examined, it is not possible to say that necessary diversity in each context has been accomplished. Especially studying the concept of patriotism with regards to identity, human rights, globalization, democracy can contribute to the field. For example, the relationship between democratic values, critical thinking, human rights, cultural blindness, multiculturalism, war, peace prejudge and the concept of patriotism can produce important results. Comparative research also add to the fields by presenting social, cultural background of the concept relatively. In this way, knowledge about teaching patriotism in a more effective and compatible way with the goal of democratic citizenship may emerge.