The relationship between the time management skills and cyberloafing behavior of school administrators: A quantitative analysis

The aim of this study is to review the relationship between the time management skills and cyberloafing behavior of school managers. Descriptive survey and relational research models were used in this research. Data was collected from 181 school managers at official elementary schools, secondary schools, and secondary education schools in the district of Nizip in Gaziantep during the 2017-2018 school year. A “Time Management Scale”, which looks at time planning, the effective use of time and the dimensions of time traps together with a “Cyberloafing Scale” which is composed of both significant and insignificant cyberloafing dimensions were used as data collection tools in the research. The collected data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. The research concluded that the better the school managers were at time planning and using their time effectively, the less prone they were of falling into time traps. In other words, the better their time planning and effective use of time, the more their significant and insignificant cyberloafing behavior decreased.  As a result of the regression analysis, it was seen that only time traps, among the sub-dimensions of time management, significantly predicted cyberloafing behavior.


Introduction
Since ancient times, time has been a concept that scientists have attempted to define and measure. The way a time source is perceived and used varies between cultures and societies. While it is perceived as being a flexible source in traditional communities, in developed communities time slots have been allocated to account for every detail of individual and communal life (Can, 2007). Time is a subject of interest across many fields and has been defined in many different ways based on its characteristics. According to the Turkish Language Association, time is the period through which an occurrence has passed, will pass or is passing. Time is also expressed as being a dimension in which change occurs and as being the period that elapses for a position change to occur during the movement of all of the objects in the universe (Turgut, 2002;Gürbüz & Aydın, 2012). Another definition is that time is a period in which an uninterrupted process occurs, which began in the past, is ongoing in the present, and will continue in the future. We exist in the moment, continue in the process, and hope to experience the next occurrence. Time has also been called an infinite space which fills the universe and events as part of an unstoppable flow, or the entire period given to individuals or a period in which a certain action occurs (Tutar, 2003;Kandemir, 2015;Ataş, 2017;Hacıbalayeva, 2017). Time that is equally distributed to all people, which is extremely valuable, unique and non-storable (Rodoplu, 2001), can also be considered as the period in which an action occurs. If everything that is in motion on earth and in the universe stops, such an environment could be considered as having no concept of time (Karaoğlan, 2006). Einstein's "General Theory of Relativity Theory" has led humans to think about the connection between time and location. According to Einstein's theory, in cases of extreme 'velocity', time slows down.
If it is considered as a process in the execution of a function, both for people and institutional structures, time can be expressed as the process of seizing an opportunity that must be taken, and as a process parameter (Ören, 2016). Unlike other resources, time is a scarce resource that cannot be traded, shared with others, collected, stolen, stocked like a raw material, borrowed or lent, altered, stopped and operated like a machine, produced, replaced when expended, re-experienced, reproduced, renewed, postponed or replaced (Eroğlu & Bayrak, 1994;Tutar, 2003;Harmancı, 2006;Küçük, 2010;Pocket Mentor, 2013;Yurdagül, 2016). As it is such a scarce resource, time also has a quite important role for organizations that play a significant role in modern human life, as well as in the sustainability and modernization process of human life (Çelebi, 2017). Time began to be perceived as a resource that must be managed by managers at the beginning of the 80s (Bülbül, 2014). It is important to fully understand time and its characteristics in order for time to be managed effectively and its value within an organization to be understood. In order for time to be managed effectively, it is necessary to appreciate that time is a unique and irrevocable asset, and one of the most important resources in management processes. However, management of time will not be effective if its importance is not understood (Turgut, 2002). Managers and employees of organizations must therefore be familiar with the characteristics of time in order to understand and manage it. As time is something that is given by God to all people equally, regardless of wealth, age or sex, it is a gift and a treasure (Yurdagül, 2016). Gürbüz & Aydın (2012) have stated that there is no way to increase time, as it is a natural resource that applies to everyone equally, and therefore it is important to plan what can be done in the available time, rather than consider how much time there is available. Time management is defined in various ways in the literature: as being the process of applying management tools such as "planning, organizing, executing and controlling" to one's own program so that an individual is able to effectively achieve his/her objectives both in work and social life (Gözel, 2010); the activity of efficiently and effectively using and controlling time (Hacıbalayeva, 2017); effective management of time by people in order to achieve their targets (Marsh-Girardi, 2011); aiming to improve the volume and content of the work performed within a scarce time frame; and the management of oneself by an individual or organization within certain time frames that apply equally to everyone (Kışla, 2017;Tutar, 2003). In fact, time management is merely a tool to systematically arrange the effect of an individual on efficacy ( Botha, 2013). Adair and Adair (1999) stated that the quality of time used is more important than its quantity, and so the main principle is to make the best of time. In this respect, Demir (2016) defined effective time management as "performing the right task, in the right place, at the right time, and in the right way". Time management can be defined as the relationship between five independent variables. These are the tasks of managers, the frequency of tasks, the success rate of tasks, the use of time management techniques, and time management style (Kouali & Pashiardis, 2015). When time management is conducted successfully, sufficient time remains for a person to fulfill his work responsibilities and to pursue a social life and hobbies (Hızırlı, 2012). The aims of time management are the separation of unnecessary tasks, an increase in efficiency, reduction of time taken in the performance of tasks, and execution of quality work within limited time frames (Gözel and Halat, 2010).
Managers utilize different approaches to the management of time. These are an orderly life approach that projects order in both one's business and personal environment (Arkcı, 2014), the warrior approach that focuses on the protection of time which an individual allocates to oneself (Tutar, 2003), the target identification approach that favors identification of consistent targets that are in harmony with each other (Arkcı, 2014), the ABC approach that involves a well-designed hierarchy of priorities (Akbeyik, 2013) and the magical tool approach that references the principle, "Good tasks are performed with good tools" (Ataş, 2017). There are also time management techniques. These techniques are an awareness of time flow (Pocket Mentor, 2013), the preparation of a time report and evening analysis which identifies the amount of time spent on various tasks (Scoot, 1997), the priority identification technique which enables differentiation between urgent and important tasks (Smith;1998), the pareto analysis that is based on the logic that 20% of time spent at work constitutes 80% of results, and 80% of time spent constitutes 20% of results (Scoot, 1997), and the recognition of energy periods which focuses on the identification of peak performance times (Adair & Adair, 1999). It is unlikely that managers who manage time well, and who utilize time approaches and techniques to manage time, will fall into time traps. A lack of time management skills in school managers can be considered as one of the main factors that lead to major inefficiencies and ineffectiveness within the context of the school working environment (Botha, 2013). Since technological tools and micro electronic devices consume a lot of time, due to the use of both virtual games and social media, people today complain about the insufficiency of time to invest in human and social capital. In other words, people today waste significant periods of time due to the busy pace imposed by the age of global information and technology (Ören, 2016).
Nowadays, the dependency of people on information technology applications is constantly increasing as a result of innovations and changes that are occurring in the field of technology. In the digital era, technology has a key role worldwide (Demirkan, 2019, pp. 41). Therefore since the second half of the 20th century, the use of computers and the Internet has become obligatory for individuals, and this has expanded even more with the introduction of mobile technologies (Akman and Koçoğlu, 2016). This is particularly due to the spread of Internet access, and consequently an increase has been observed in the Internet use of employees for personal purposes (Blanchard & Henle, 2008, pp.1068. More studies investigating the efficient, conscious and proper use of the Internet are being undertaken along with the rapid escalation in Internet use around the world (Akman, 2016). Even though the Internet is a technological tool that allows for the development of important work opportunities and for improvements in the working efficiency of employees, it can sometimes lead to problems in the workplace (Greenfield & Davis, 2002;Lim & Teo, 2005). Indeed, it is often seen in practice that employees use technology and Internet for personal rather than for business-related purposes, which leads to wastage of labor and time (Lim & Teo, 2005, Ulukapı et al., 2014Ünalvd.,2015;Candan and İnce, 2016;Serttaş and Şimşek, 2016;Çavuşoğlu & Palamutçuoğlu, 2017;Karataş & Avci, 2017; Karatepe & Güngör, 2017).
As a new method of shirking duties, cyberloafing can be defined as aberrant behavior that leads to the inefficient use of time (Lim & Teo, 2005;Askew et al., 2014), the use of non-business related Internet for personal purposes rather than for fulfilling the requirements of one's role within working hours, and the unnecessary use of an organization's Internet for personal purposes by surfing irrelevant websites, receiving and sending personal e-mails and using information technology applications beyond their intended use (Lim, 2002;Doorn, 2011;Lim & Teo, 2005;Liberman et. al., 2011;Ulukapı et al., 2014, Serttaş & Şimşek, 2016Çivilidağ, 2017). The definitions of cyberloafing have some common expressions such as; the performance of an activity within working hours, the voluntary activities of employees, the resulting time wasted, employees that neglect their job, the personal nature of activities, the intended nature of activities, a lack of interest in an employee's job, and even their performance of such activities in line with their own interests (Çavuşoğlu & Palamutçuoğlu, 2017;Karatepe & Güngör, 2017).
Examples of cyberloafing behavior includes surfing non-business related websites, playing online games, conducting online banking transactions, updating personal blog/site information or exchanging non-business related e-mails by using the Internet for non-organizational related purposes during working hours (Örücü and Yıldız, 2014;Karatepe andGüngör, 2017, Şen et al., 2016). In order for these Internet activities to be considered as cyberloafing, they must be performed at work and hinder the employee's work performance (Tan and Demir, 2018). Employees who are engaged in cyberloafing use the information systems, especially the Internet of an organization, in order to consciously shirk their duties (Liberman et al., 2011;O'Neill et al., 2014;Yağcı and Yüceler, 2016;Yıldırım and Karabey, 2017). As technology continues to develop, cyberloafing practices become more complex as mobile tools, such as smart phones, tablets and electronic readers, are added to the Internet facilities of an organization (Kaplan and Öğüt, 2012;İyigün et al., 2014).
Since cyberloafing can result in significant costs to an organization and can have negative effects in terms of that organization and its employees, it is important to identify the underlying causes (Kaplan and Öğüt, 2012). Organizational and non-organizational factors, such as the characteristics of employees (Liberman et al., 2011;Yağcı & Yüceler, 2016), the high-level and intensive use of technology within an organization, the attitude of employees towards their job, employees shirking of their duties due to non-Internet related reasons, a lack of Internet use policies in the work place (Mills et al., 2001;Çavuşoğlu & Palamutçuoğlu, 2017), becoming bored with one's work, the length of working hours, low salaries, dissatisfaction with one's job and a sense of injustice (Garrett & Danziger, 2008;Yağcı and Yüceler, 2016;Salary.com, 2008Salary.com, as cited in Çivilidağ, 2017, possession of quality information technology tools (Garrett & Danziger, 2008), the length of employment in an organization, executive or non-executive status, and the wage earned (Ugrin et al., 2007), are all factors that might result in cyberloafing.
Cyberloafing has both advantages and disadvantages for an organization. There is no doubt that cyberloafing seems to have quite negative effects for both the institution and the employees (Karataş & Avci, 2017). Computers and mobile tools are increasingly being used, resulting in an escalation in cyberloafing behavior which negatively impacts on the work performance of an individual by causing a loss of efficiency if not controlled or properly limited (Afacan & Fındıklı, 2016). When employees misuse the Internet for activities such as online games, online shopping, personal investment management, personal e-mail exchanges, chatting or watching media, the time that is required to do their work is wasted (Ugrin et al., 2007). Cyberloafing may therefore cause economic loss, an inefficient use of time and exposure of the organization to legal liabilities as a result of a decrease in productivity (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001;Lim & Teo, 2005;Liberman et al., 2011;Yağcı & Yüceler, 2016). Actions and applications used to send posts on social media accounts, chat with friends, visit online communities/forums, listen to music, play games, comment on news in sports pages, newspapers, magazines, etc., watch pornography, and check e-mails, which are all referred to as social-purpose cyberloafing behavior, can be regarded as constituting the negative aspects of cyberloafing (Mills et al., 2001;Greengard, 2002;Tan & Demir, 2018).
However, as well as having disadvantages, cyberloafing also has some advantages. While engaging in cyberloafing behavior, employees might review and share opinions on various blogs and online communities related to their institutions. This would allow them to collect new information by joining social networks and utilizing information as organizational information. As a result, interaction-based organizational learning capacity and participative decision-making capacity may be improved. Cyberloafing can be beneficial in developing vocational satisfaction and efficiency by combating employee stress and discomfort (Keklik et al.., 2015;Yağcı & Yüceler, 2016). What is important is the proper use of information systems and the Internet. In other words, the use of information systems and the Internet by employees in the interests of the organization, as well as for individual and occupational development, is one of the advantages of cyberloafing.
Cyberloafing has been classified in various ways by researchers. Lim (2002) categorizes cyberloafing behavior into two areas: browsing activities (surfing on websites that are not related to work but related to sports, investment, entertainment, and news, personal shopping, visiting adult websites (with sexual content)); and e-mail activities (receiving, sending and checking non-business related e-mails). Blanchard and Henle (2008) classify cyberloafing into two groups, the insignificant: (exchange of e-mails by employees within working hours); and the significant (gambling and surfing on adult websites). According to the literature, the generally recognized classification is the one proposed by Blanchard andHenle (2008, pp.1076). Such a classification was therefore used as the basis for this research. Significant cyberloafing includes activities that pose a legal liability for the employer, is detrimental to an employees' efficiency and is excessively time consuming (Ulusoy & Gültekin Benli, 2017). Insignificant cyberloafing behavior generally arises due to other employees, while significant cyberloafing behavior is individual-based (Askew et al.,2014).
Educational organizations are important structures that perform important roles in the social, cultural and economic growth and development of a nation (Akar, 2018, pp.8). Educational institutions make use of technology in undertaking these roles. Educational institutions are among the institutions that have been most affected by information technologies, and also amongst those which use these technologies most frequently. Information technologies are frequently used by teachers and students during educational activities, and are actively used by managers for school-related tasks (eschool, correspondences, staff transactions, etc.). There are significant opportunities for cyberloafing behavior and engagement in personal activities while these tasks are being performed. Within this context, the relationship between the time management skills and the cyberloafing behavior of school managers will be examined in this study. Based on this primary objective, responses were sought to the following questions:

Research Model
Descriptive survey and relational research models were used in this research. A descriptive survey was used to review the demonstrated levels of time management skills and the cyberloafing behavior of school managers, while a relational model was preferred for the examination of the relationship between time planning, the effective use of time, the avoidance of time traps skills, and the cyberloafing behavior of school managers. Studies aimed at collecting data to determine certain characteristics of a group are called descriptive surveys, whereas studies performed to identify the relationship between two or more variables are referred to as relational research (Büyüköztürk et al., 2014).

Study Population and Sample
The population of the study consisted of school managers who were working in schools located in the district of Nizip, in Gaziantep, during the 2017-2018 school year. Considering the small size of the population, and the number of items being evaluated, the entire population was included in the research sample. A total of 181 school managers were involved in the research. Table 1 shows the information relating to the personal variables of the school managers who participated in the research. According to Table 1, 88.4% (n=160) and 11.6% (n=21) of the participating school managers were male and female, respectively. Distribution based on age shows that 7.7% (n=14), 47.5% (n=86), 37% (n=67) and 7.7% (n=14) of the school managers were within the age ranges of 20-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51 and above, respectively. 54.7% (n=99) of the managers, which constitute the majority, had a seniority of 1-5 years in management. 8.3% (n=15), 32% (n=58), 28.2% (n=51) and 31.5% (n=57) of the participating managers worked in kindergarten, elementary schools, secondary schools and high schools, respectively. According to their educational status, 83.4 (n=151) of the managers had a bachelor's degree and 16.6% (n=30) had a master's degree. Strongly agree.

Measurement instruments used in
Cyberloafing Scale: Developed by Örücü and Yıldız (2014), and adapted for school managers by Özdemir and Demir (2015), the cyberloafing scale consisted of 14 items and 2 dimensions as significant and insignificant cyberloafing, and was based on a 5 point Likert scale. In the study by Özdemir and Demir (2015), the Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient was Always. The increase in the expression values of the scale from 1 to 5 was interpreted as being a more frequent demonstration of the cyberloafing behavior of the response group (school managers).

Data Analysis
Before analyzing the data, eight scales that were not properly completed, and thus were unsuitable for analysis, were excluded. Extreme values were determined for the data in the data analysis process. All scores were turned into standard Z scores for the determination of extreme values. In normal distribution, 99% of the data has a +3 and -3 standard deviation from the average

Findings
This section comprises the results of the analysis performed to determine the perception levels of school managers, relating to time management skills and cyberloafing, as well as the relationship between variables. The arithmetic means and standard deviation values of school managers relating to the time management scale standard deviation are given in Table 2.  Table 2, the arithmetic mean values of the time management subdimensions of school managers were as follows; time planning ( X =4.12), effective use of time ( X =4.11) and time traps ( X =2.35). The perception levels of school managers, relating to time planning and the effective use of time, were within the "Strongly Agree" score range, whereas the perception levels relating to time traps were within the "Disagree" score range.
The arithmetic mean and standard deviation values of school managers relating to cyberloafing scale sub-dimensions are given in Table 3. It can be seen in Table 3 that the arithmetic mean scores of the cyberloafing sub-scales of school managers were ( X =2.57) for the insignificant cyberloafing and ( X =1.88) for significant cyberloafing sub-dimensions. According to these results, the perception levels of school managers relating to the significant cyberloafing dimension is within the "Rarely" score range, whereas the perception levels regarding insignificant cyberloafing were within the "Sometimes" range.
The results of the Pearson Correlation Analysis that was undertaken to identify the relationship between the time management sub-dimensions (time planning, effective use of time, time traps), and the cyberloafing sub-dimensions, (significant cyberloafing, insignificant cyberloafing) can be seen in Table 4. -.14* -.11 .21** .65** 1 *p<.05, **p<.01 According to the correlation analysis results seen in Table 4, there was a positive and significant relationship (r=0.64, p<.01) between time planning and the effective use of time. The results of multiple regression analysis relating to the prediction ability of school managers' time planning, effective use of time and avoiding time trap skills on their cyberloafing behavior can be seen in Table 5.

Discussion and Conclusion
In research aimed at examining the relationship between the time management skills and the cyberloafing behavior of school managers, levels of time management skills and cyberloafing behaviors were determined, followed by correlation and regression studies performed to identify the relationships between variables.
The research has concluded that perception levels of school managers relating to time planning and effective use of time were within the "Strongly Agree" score range, whereas the perception levels related to time traps were within the "Disagree" score range. According to other research (Dağlı, 2000;Terzi, 2007;Akbaba Altun, 2011;Süsin, 2012;Küçük, 2014;Uyduran, 2014;Özer & Kış, 2015;Kandemir, 2015;Şahin & Gümüş, 2016), the opinions of school managers relating to time management support the findings obtained in this research. In his field research, Şahin (2014) concluded that the opinions of managers on the effective use of time are generally at the "Mostly" level, and managers are seen to be generally careful about using time effectively. Eroğlu and Bayrak (1994) stated that effective time management is necessity for its effective and efficient use, and even though time is important for everyone, it is much more important for managers since time impacts on their decision-making. During school hours, a managers' time does not belong to them because they are required to share their time with their colleagues, students and other stakeholders (Botha, 2013).
Therefore, an important responsibility in a managers' organizational life is to manage their time properly, as well as to eliminate problems relating to time and to take control of the time available. All this is possible through effective time management (Yılmaz & Aslan, 2002;Akatay, 2003). As the leader of an educational facility, a school manager must manage time well in order to improve education outcomes (Dağlı, 2000;Küçük, 2014). School managers who cannot manage time effectively and efficiently are likely to experience stress and burnout syndrome during their performance of various roles. This will significantly impact on the quality of educational activities in schools (Özer & Kış, 2015). Using and managing time well is extremely important for educational managers to ensure the effective conduct of their work. Effectiveness and efficiency of educational managers in their working life will have a positive effect on students, teachers and other educational staff (Küçük, 2014).
According to the findings of another study, the more school managers demonstrate time planning behavior, the more their effective use of time behavior increases. Furthermore, this study indicated that the more managers demonstrated time planning and effective use of time behavior, the less they demonstrated falling into time traps behavior. As a result of Ulusoy's (1996) study on the subject, it was seen that 82.1% of the managers fell into time traps due to a "lack of planning" (Uyanıker, 2014). In some similar studies (Yeşil, 2009;Makenzie (1989, as cited in: Erdul, 2005, it was concluded that purposeless or unplanned work is one of the main reasons for falling into time traps. Andıç (2009)  Akbeyik (2013) have suggested that a good manager must develop personal policies to avoid falling into time traps, and must look for ways to take control of their time.
As an organization, a school requires efficient and effective time management. Therefore, the role of a school manager is especially important (Botha, 2013). As a result of the study, it was found that the significant and insignificant cyberloafing behavior of managers decreased as their time planning and effective use of time behavior improved. Tasks and activities that have became more complex due to changes and developments in the fields of technology, information and communication during recent years have caused managers who perform within limited time frames to feel the pressure of time more intensely. Therefore, this has heightened the importance of time, as well as the effective use of time for organizations and, especially, managers (Akatay, 2003).
As a result of the regression analysis, it was seen that only time traps, among the underlying elements of time management, significantly predicted cyberloafing behavior. Time traps account for 7% of cyberloafing behavior. The results of other research (Genç, 2014;Genç & Aydoğan, 2014;Sağır & Ateş, 2017, Ataş, 2017 also support the findings of this study. Sağır and Ateş (2017) stated that cyberloafing can hinder the effective use of time, since it has a delaying effect within the working environment. Managers must account for virtually every second of their time in order to be successful. Karaoğlan (2006) suggests that time traps can be avoided by managers through the proper and intelligent management of time.
Technology that is not used according to its intended purpose may result in the inefficient use of human resources and time within an organization, and may also result in significant legal problems (Kaplan & Öğüt, 2012). It is now a known fact that cyberloafing is an inevitable and negative form of behavior in organizations that prevents employees from performing their tasks effectively and efficiently. Smart mobile phones, tablets, etc. are increasingly being integrated into daily life and are being more commonly used in the work environment. The use of learning opportunities offered by the Internet in a way that contributes to business life and the establishment of relevant policies by managers in consideration of the aforementioned potential, can be advantageous for organizations (Ulukapı et al., 2014;Karatepe & Güngör, 2017;Yıldırım & Karabey, 2017) Therefore, organizations must establish policies relating to the use of electronic devices. This is a common method for preventing cyberloafing activities, for creating balanced interventions and systems, for research into the effects of cyberloafing on institutional learning, as well as for assessing the motivation and performance of employees (Ünal et al., 2015;Serttaş & Şimşek, 2016;Candan & İnce, 2016). An organization must clearly convey its policies to employees. Managers must also be aware of any legal situations that they may encounter (Karataş & Avci, 2017). Employees who believe that an organization does not have clear policies on the use of the Internet or where, if it does so, it has not been sufficiently explained to them, demonstrate more cyberloafing behavior (Kerse et al., 2017).
It is possible, in accordance with the findings obtained from this study, to make suggestions for both investigators and practitioners. Since time planning and the effective use of time reduce cyberloafing behavior, practical training in time management and the efficient use of technology needs to be provided to school managers. The Ministry of Education must establish technology and Internet use policies, systems and legal sanctions in order to prevent cyberloafing. The individual and the organizational reasons behind cyberloafing behavior of staff at a school should be researched.