Informativity in Translation

The fact that we not only find that different structural means used to realize information structure across languages, but also within a single language in an interactive fashion, gives rise to several questions concerning the description of information structure and its realization. A complete answer would not necessarily constitute a theory of the relation between information structure and its possible realization. The issue is not just to be able to describe that information structure is realized by tune or word order, for example. If information structure is to be a universal aspect of sentential meaning, then a theory should be able to explain why a language may avail itself of particular structural indications of informativity, and when it would do so - from a cross-linguistic perspective.


Introduction
Various kinds of structural indications of informativity are available in Languages, depending on how marked a sentence"s information structure is in a given context. The fact that we not only find that different structural means used to realize information structure across languages, but also within a single language in an interactive fashion, gives rise to several questions concerning the description of information structure and its realization. A complete answer would not necessarily constitute a theory ‫لد‬ ‫لمج‬ ‫ا‬ ، ‫هساهية‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ا‬ ‫لون‬ ‫الع‬ ‫بابل،‬ ‫جامعة‬ ‫لة‬ ‫مج‬ 62 ‫لعدد‬ ‫ا‬ ، 4 : 61 0 2 486 of the relation between information structure and its possible realization. The issue is not just to be able to describe that information structure is realized by tune or word order, for example. If information structure is to be a universal aspect of sentential meaning, then a theory should be able to explain why a language may avail itself of particular structural indications of informativity, and when it would do so -from a cross-linguistic perspective. From a cross-linguistic viewpoint, the question is about the way we predict structural indications of informativity a particular language may probably use. Another question which is from a language-internal viewpoint, about the way we could describe not only how a language may use e.g. word order or tune, but also predict when a language would do so. To do so, one should explain: the way people decide, the amount of knowledge that forms a unit and how to what extent one has to load it onto a surface. The pairs containing Question-answer, or the sequences for statement-commentary, are constructed from utterances that have an identity which is completely textual and part of it only looks sentential. As Blackburn and Boss (2003:34) note, "topics are not noun phrases in sentences, but items of knowledge used by people".

1-1 Informativity as a Concept
Informativity refers to whether the content of a text is new or whether it was expected by the receiver i.e. indications of contextual boundness. It concerns the degree to which information in a text is new or unexpected to the text receiver. The processing of highly informative occurrences is of a great importance. It is the case of not to let the receiver"s processing becomes overloaded to the point of endangering communication. Every text is at least somewhat informative: no matter how predictable form and content may be, there will always be a few variable occurrences that cannot be entirely known. Particularly "low informativity is likely to be disturbing, causing boredom or even rejection of the text. The greater the degree of informativity, the more interesting is a text to the text receiver; however, if the degree of informativity is too high, a text may be too difficult to understand and the processing effort is too high. Informativity is concerned with "determining whether a piece of information (e.g., a reading a piece of text or an utterance) is already entailed by its local context. It is an often used notion in natural language processing and understanding. For instance, Blackburn and Boss, (1999) show that informativity can be treated as an entailment problem: a piece of new information new is informative with respect to a discourse context old and general world knowledge" Informativity refers to the notion that modification of an argument is licensed only when it is informative in the discourse context. Blackburn and Boss 2005. argue that informativity is a general pragmatic requirement directly following from general conversational principles.
Yet informativity comes up short in contexts such as repeated in (1) below, in which the result state conveyed by the particle is not contextually informative. 1. The car occupants were incredibly lucky they actually wedged into the post. If the post had not been there they would have probably rolled over several times onto the busy road. (ibid) In (1) the result state conveyed by the particle over is not any more informative in this context than the verb rolled itself. Thus inclusion of the particle cannot be licensed via informativity.
To make a presupposition much more pragmatic, "it was argued that presupposition should be viewed as (a) cognitive, (b) embedded in discourse (dialogue) ‫لعدد‬ ‫ا‬ ، 4 : 61 0 2 487 and (c) related to the beliefs of agents. To make the treatment of presupposition more pragmatic, informativity can then be identified with relevance; it indicates the usefulness of a statement to providing an answer to the question at issue in the discourse, and hence of its relevance in that discourse". (Kennedy 2005)

1-2 Orders of Informativity:
A basic classification stated by Beaugrande (1980: 110) for "the major orders of informativity which falls into the following three ones: a. First Order informativity: It"s fully predictable in cohesion, coherence and planning, the situation is obvious. Grammar rules are clear.
b. Second Order informativity: Occurrences are below the upper range of probability are the normal standards for textual communication.
c. Third Order informativity: In the text occurrences appear to be outside the set of more or less probable options and demand much attention and processing resources like footnotes etc.
The text types have importance in informativity because the text type has the frameworks to control the range of options. In a scientific text, for example, as there is more new information it will be in the third order of informativity. Short stories are literary texts so the usual order is either the first or the second order of informativity. But this doesn"t mean that literary texts don"t attract the reader's attention. They have different ways to draw the special focus. For instance in the short story the dialogues come after the other and at first they are in the first order of informativity but later on the reader understand that there is something unknown between the characters and the story joins in the second order of informativity. As the text is easy to understand the writer doesn"t need to downgrade it". Frakes & Yates (1992)

1-3 Structural Indications of Informativity:
Constructions realize informativity "where the focus proper appears in a position other than the canonical focus position. There may be various reasons for doing so, arising from the information structure and possible focus projections, thematic structure, etc. Bearing in mind that having the focus proper in a non-canonical position can mean two things. Either the focus element appears in a position other than the focus proper but that position is still consistent with, or it is in a position that is neither the focus proper nor consistent with" (ibid.). This implies that a. Rigidly and non-rigidly verb-first constructions have an immediately post-verbal unmarked focus position. b. Rigid VO realize information structure using predominantly tune; mixed and free VO constructions use predominantly word order. c. Non-rigidly verb-initial OV constructions can have a marked immediately preverbal focus. d. Rigidly and non-rigidly verb-initial OV constructions with mixed or free word order can have marked focus position towards the end of the sentence, using just word order unless the structure as such would be ambiguous between a focus proper construction.

1-4 textual Informativity Value
In looking into some issues that reveal the importance of informativity for the processes of textual identity, it has been noted that "problem-solving techniques for maintaining connectivity of textual occurrences are tied to probabilities for transitions in participating systems. When probable pathways are chosen, efficiency increases, but ‫لعدد‬ ‫ا‬ ، 4 : 61 0 2 488 interest sinks; the reverse is true for improbable pathways"(ibid.). It has been claimed that the orders of informativity at least should be three: a medium order in which efficiency and effectiveness should be stated one against the other, and if one of them heavily outweighs the other then each for the extreme ranges. When the medium order is really the familiar standard for the communication that is textual, then strategies for making upgrading or downgrading for the extremes should be achieved by language users.
When spreading activation is achieved for sequences of utterances, then a few of that which is said by people looks true "new." Kennedy (2005:68) totally denies the idea that says we can invent everything new in the time we speak: It is believed that "The invention of speech or argument is not properly an invention: for to invent is to discover that we know not, and not to recover or resume on that which we already know; and the use of this invention is no other but out of the knowledge whereof our mind is already possessed, to draw forth or call before us that which may be pertinent to the purpose which we take into our consideration" (ibid).
There ought to be mapping preferences here also between the organization whether on the surface or underlying one. The greater case is using the cleft construction for making modifiers focusing and the use of nouns makes it much acceptable to draw attention for locations, times objects, attributes. The same case is also used with the pseudo-cleft construction that identifies a verb or a verb phrases in a good way, and then it is much suitable to draw attention for actions or events. Preferences like these can be restricted when required as in the way of mapping an action or an event within a noun. (McCready 2005) Sentences constructions should clearly have some sort of relationship to the relevant probabilities in the same context. Firbas (1971) stated The concept of "communicative dynamism" which is one of reflections of such a factor in linguistic sentence. Third-order informativity related to occurrences as discontinuities or discrepancies may be ranked as the highest "communicative dynamism." In the case of occurrences that look normal in languages that is clearly free sequence of words, then the progress of a sentence should reflect much more amount of this scale (Sgall et al. 1986: 237). In the case of English, constraints for sequencing may come from many factors other than these, many of them are like these but few are as inflections that can be identified in the individual words to identity the grammatical dependencies. Beaugrande (1980:113) views the way to decide upon informativity in a text, which will be followed in the present work, as: 1-Strength of Linkage in knowledge of the world recognised as related to orders of informativity. If a text assures relations identified to be determinate in advance, we can say that it is the first order. Assertion related to typical relations brings more informativity as typicalness decreases. Accidental relations assertion is normally neutral for informativity, where accidents can be classified from trivial ones to unique ones. Nontypical relations assertion may result in second-order at least, then the contradiction of relations that are determinated results in informativity of third-order.

2-Original
Metaphors can constitute third-order occurrences. There should be no particular expression that looks literal which accomplishes the similar thing as in the case of the metaphor. The discrepancy may be under the surface structure, and the downgrading related to it may not decidable. ‫لعدد‬ ‫ا‬ ، 4 : 61 0 2 489 3-The procedures of upgrading are also of a certain value. If anything is clearly known or easily determined by standards those for logic or science, there is no clear reason for people to assert it via a text. Here too, we have an opportunity for a motivation search to take place. 4-The sources divergence related to the expectations of text users may help account for the notorious inconsistencies in the judgments of informants to decide upon the grammaticalness of sentences in isolation. 5-Expectations can be applicable to negation uses in communication.

1-6 English Text
Be ware! "By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the Caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill. The flood water flows down from me and the bird can not fly upon me. I put a curtain against the Caliphate and kept myself detached from it.
Then I began to think whether I should assault or endure calmly the blinding darkness of tribulation wherein the grown up are up are feebled and the young grow old and the true believer acts under strain till he meets Allah" (on his death). (Raza 1971:50-51)

1-8 Text Realisation
Generally, "the text is in third order informativity. There is some sort of new information in it as in the title of the Sermon which looks vague. It is a word which can not be expected. In some of the parts it may be taken as the third order informativity. Take for instance the results found in the surveys and the reaction of the residents all can be taken as new for the readers. The writer tries to mix them in the article so it becomes more attractive and difficult to read. For this reason it is difficult to read it without interpretation. The writer wants to fulfill his aim by putting it to be of two levels surface and deep. If it develops just the second order of informativity the reader may put in mind that such constructions are already known and there is no need to read the rest of the Sermon".
After the introduction the writer is still in the same upgraded of the order level and gives the results of the surveys. For the first time the reader comes across with this kind of information. Text producer often speculates on the receivers" attitude of acceptability and presents a text that requires important contributions in order to make sense. Apparently, a text receiver is readily persuaded by content he must supply on his own and be within the same level of information. The fact asserted here is so well known to some people that there seems to be no point in saying it here. The stretch of text is clearly cohesive and coherent, and undoubtedly intended to be acceptable as such. But it is nonetheless a highly effective text because it is so informative. The assertion of "the ambiguous fact at the beginning functions as a starting point for asserting something more informative. The surface cue signals that the known " ‫"الشقشققية‬ ‫لعدد‬ ‫ا‬ ، 4 : 61 0 2 490 relation is not strictly accurate. The ensuing correction of a common view is less expected, so that the informativity of the whole passage is upgraded".

1-9 Text Processing 1-9-1-Strength of Linkage
The original text, as a whole, is in third order informativity while the translated is in the first order. The short paragraphs may help in reading with a short period of the storage which is active. The content of the text is well related that there is no need for making some sort of division. In this case such a division may help to elicit expectations of newness. As a result the informativity that accord well with other tendencies in the same text. The text starts with a swear construction.
As any text beginnings, it has no clear knowledge which is given that can be taken as its background. It looks as if it is new. Concerning the second piece of knowledge which becomes topical for the text as a whole. The organization of this knowledge in such a construction suggests that it should have not been mentioned previously to draw the reader into the world of the text. The subjects in the sentences are all related to someone (who is known for those who are familiar with, ‫,(فقن‬ and the pronoun "he" which looks confusing since the topic acts as a centre for control to attract otherwise material that cannot be decidable.

1-9-2-Original Metaphors
Here we can say that there is a pattern used especially in the metaphors like: The effectiveness of such constructions lies in to take a full freedom of attention outside the surface structures parsing, by receiving greater concentration for content of conceptual relation. Then the principle of cognitive is to have a contrast of changing input which is much more intensively processed than being unchanged. Such a matter of establishing such effective constructions as well as presenting a conceptual-relational content of greater attention is not stated in the translated text. The concluding sentence violates the pattern with the predicate whose second constituent extension leads to the focus on the final element. ‫خرجت"‬ ‫"شقشقة‬ 1-9-3-The procedures of upgrading Informativity flow within the text is totally of no value. After learning that ( ‫تقمصقاا‬ ‫,)فقن‬ which has been not revealed by the reference found in the translated text, the writer is not sure to find that the reader till then doesn"t know how to deal with that " , ‫"إ‬ may have the reason to be included "(backward plus outward downgrading)". The process of comprehension has been run by inferences stated on that which is typical which is normally the identity of the translated text although such a case is not fund in the source text which raise the source text to the third order. The translator has carefully managed in identifying determinate material which helps in preventing the ambiguity (Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr, the Caliphate) while the source text writer has avoided doing so and managed to reach what he planned to. The author has some goal with the usual one to make the presentations surprising. By obliging the readers to have a confuse of expressions, the author guides his reader to a dramatic realization of the way he suffers from a severe torturing matter presented by , , . In that perspective, the motivation for announcing such matter looks much bigger.