Chambers in Slovenia – so Similar and yet so Different; A Comparison of Structures and Working Methods Using the Example of the Veterinary Chamber and the Detective Chamber in Republic of Slovenia

: Chambers are associations of legal and natural persons engaged in profitable activity. By definition, they are a community governed by public law that is pursuing a similar activity, founded primarily to protect the interests of its members. In Slovenia, chambers are established to represent persons engaged in various business activities from companies, sole traders, farmers, foresters, craftsmen, private detectives, veteri-narians and similar. The chambers differ slightly from one another, and can essentially be divided into three groups, namely chambers of commerce, professional chambers and mixed-type chambers. The tasks of the chambers, their bodies and their duties, the criteria for membership as well as the termination, financing or acquisition of funds for operation and other important information are specified in their by-laws, the respective law or other legal act. In this article the entire system of chambers of the Republic of Slovenia is presented using the example of three randomly selected chambers that differ in terms of their functioning, the exercise of public powers or financing in general, with the Chamber of Veterinarians and the Detective Chamber being explained in more detail. We have selected these two chambers as we wanted to present one natural science and one social science chamber. In the comparison between the detective and veterinary chambers, we can therefore research and analyse many aspects that reflect the diversity and specificity of each professional field. One of the reasons, why we have chosen these two chambers is also the fact, that we as authors are or were active members of our two chosen chambers. The comparison makes it easier to understand how they work, as well as their similarities and differences. We found that not only the chambers we selected, but most chambers operate very similarly, perform similar tasks and have many of the same organs required for their functioning


Original Research Article Introduction
Various definitions of the term "chamber" can be found in in professional literature.According to Virant (1), chambers are registered entities that unite companies or individuals practicing a particular profession on a non-profit basis.The Dictionary of the Slovenian Literary Language (2) states that a chamber is a public-law community of institutions, organisations engaged in a similar, related activity, established with the aim of protecting the professional and business interests of its members, or a public administration community of people of the same profession, established to protect the interests of its members.The Statute of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia defines a chamber as an independent, voluntary, interest-driven, and non-profit association of legal and natural persons engaged in profit-making activities on the market (3).
The chamber system in the Republic of Slovenia is extremely important, especially for the members of chambers who perform certain activities, whether they are companies, sole traders, farmers or foresters, craftsmen, doctors, private detectives, veterinarians, and many others.Chambers are classified as chambers of commerce, professional chambers and mixed-type chambers (1).
All chambers have been established on the basis of certain legal acts or agreements that define the functioning of the chamber, its bodies, the financial resources required for its operation and other information that is important for understanding the establishment of the chamber and its smooth functioning.In addition to the legal acts, chambers prepare annual reports, work programmes, presentations, rules, codes, standards, and others.
The main tasks of the chambers are to achieve the goals and realise the interests of their members.Each chamber also has its own vision, mission and certain fundamental tasks that it pursues.The chambers can also perform certain tasks within the scope of public powers.Public powers are carried out in accordance with the laws governing the chambers' remit, in accordance with the regulations, and on the basis of an appropriate concession or possibly an authorisation granted to the chamber by the respective competent ministry.One task is the issuing and revoking of licences to practise a particular profession, such as veterinarian and private detective.
The article presents the Slovenian chamber system, focusing on the definition of the importance of granting public powers and the role of chambers in Slovenia.It includes a comparison and analysis of three chambers of different types as well as a comparison and detailed presentation of the Veterinary Chamber and the Detective Chamber.

Overview of the system of chambers in the Republic of Slovenia and a comparison of the operation of selected chambers of commerce and professional chambers
The law according to which the entire system of chambers was developed in Slovenia is the Chambers of Commerce and Industry Act (4), which serves as the basis for the establishment of chambers of commerce as well as professional chambers and mixed-type chambers, which operate according to their own laws.Each chamber a chamber of commerce, professional or mixed-type chamber, has its bylaws that define the general characteristics of the chamber, its goals, values, main tasks and the public powers it exercises, the way it is structured, its functioning bodies and their tasks, the financing of the chamber, relationship to legal entities, the rights and obligations of its members and others.
The first chamber established after the adoption of the Act was the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia (Gospodarska zbornica Slovenije -GZS), which is also the largest chamber in the country with the most members.After its foundation, other chambers of commerce were established.Professional chambers and mixed-type chambers were established on the basis of an umbrella law, the by-laws, or the laws under which they operate (1).
Depending on their status, method of establishment, purpose and obligation of membership, chambers are divided into as public-law and private-law chambers The former are characterised by the fact that, as legal entities under public law, by-law or any other national legal act, or by a decree, and have public powers and can perform tasks in the public interest (1).Within the scope of their powers, they can decide on the rights and obligations of their members.Article 121 of the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia stipulates that by or on the basis of a law, self-governing associations, companies and other organisations as well as natural persons, may be granted with public authority to perform certain tasks of state administration (5).
Within the scope of their public powers, the chambers can keep records, issue certificates, conduct administrative proceedings and issue decisions and regulations.Public powers are awarded by law.One principle that is very important in the exercise of public powers is the principle of legality.This means that all decisions made by a chamber must be legally justified and comply with the content of the legislation.It must also be understood that the chambers do not set their own conditions for granting permits, certificates or licences, but carry out a specific activity prescribed by law and thus only implement the law (1).
Private-law chambers, on the other hand, operate according to the Anglo-American principle, which means that the membership fees are not compulsory and they are predominantly market oriented.They are founded by natural and legal persons on the basis of a private-law act, i.e., a contract, by-laws or some other founding instrument (1).They generally promote the interests of their members in relation to their activities (6).
Comparing public-law and private-law chambers, it can be summarised that the former are established by the state through a legal act, while the latter are established by natural and legal persons through a contract or other founding instrument.It is also worth mentioning the implementation of tasks: the public-law chambers perform tasks for the entire country, whereas private-law chambers focus more on their members and their interests.There are notable differences in terms of membership -it is generally compulsory for public-law and voluntary in private-law chambers (7).In Slovenia we just have public-law chambers, but in some other countries, such as Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland the chambers of commerce are a part of private-law chambers (5).
According to the type of entity, chambers are categorised as chambers of commerce, professional chambers and a special type of chambers, i.e., so-called mixed-type chambers.Chambers of commerce are associations of economic entities, mostly companies, professional chambers are associations of individuals engaged in a professional activity as an independent profession, while mixed-type chambers combine economic entities and natural persons who perform a professional activity (1).
In Slovenia, chambers of commerce include the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia (GZS), under whose auspices there are numerous other chambers and associations as well as the Chamber of Craft and Small Business of Slovenia (OZS), a mixed-type chamber is the Chamber of Agriculture and Forestry of Slovenia (KGZS), whereas all the other chambers are professional chambers, such as the Chamber of Engineers, the Chamber of Pharmacy, the Occupational Therapists Chamber, the Chamber of Architecture and Spatial Planning of Slovenia, the Detective Chamber, the Bar Association, the Slovenian Advertising Chamber, the Social Chamber, the Chamber of Notaries, the Veterinary Chamber, the Medical Chamber and others.
Public power is an authorisation to perform certain tasks of the state or municipal administration (8), where the entity exercising public powers is determined by law (9).In the case of public powers held by the chambers, individual laws and by-laws of the chambers define and specify the tasks to be performed on the basis of the public powers.These tasks relate in particular to the granting and revoking of licences, keeping records and registers, the performance of professional supervision, the determination of the training programme, the conduct of professional examinations and similar (10).
A public power is non-transferable, i.e. the holder cannot transfer it to another person, nor can it be relinquished, as public powers are considered to be rights and duties involved in the performance of administrative tasks.The state may revoke the power if conditions are not fulfilled or violations occur in the course of exercising the power, whereby the conditions for revocation must also be specified in the law (11).
Article 121 of the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia (5) stipulates that public authority to perform certain tasks of the state administration may be vested by law or on the basis thereof.If public power is granted by law, that law must determine the holder and their tasks.There is usually a single holder of a public power and the public authority is vested for a longer term.If public power is granted pursuant to a law, there can be several holders and it is important that the law specify tasks as well as the granting authority (8).The administrative tasks of the state as defined in the State Administration Act comprise participation in policymaking, executive tasks, inspection, monitoring, developmental tasks and the provision of public services.These tasks are primarily performed by state administration bodies and by legal and natural persons under public authority (10).
Public powers are exercised in three ways, i.e., by issuing general acts, by issuing individual acts and by performing material actions.The mere exercise of a public power by issuing general acts constitutes the right of legal or natural persons to regulate issues or relationships with their general act in a compulsory manner.The exercise of a public power by issuing an individual legal act is the most common form of exercising it.The law stipulates that the holder decides on the rights, obligations and legal benefits of legal or natural persons with individual acts.Exercising public powers by performing material actions means an entitlement to perform authoritative material actions.Implementation of these actions requires the use public authority, at least indirectly, such as for instance means or powers of restraint, keeping records and others (12).
In order to better understand the functioning and inter-connectedness of the chambers, we randomly selected three different chambers, described the main characteristics of their operations, the public powers they exercise and the sources of funding, and compared them with each other.The Veterinary Chamber and the Detective Chamber were chosen for comparison, while the other randomly selected chambers are the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Slovenia and the Chamber of Craft and Small Business of Slovenia, which are chambers of commerce, and the Medical Chamber of Slovenia, which is a professional chamber.
Furthermore, in the paper we compare the Veterinary Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia and the Detective Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia.The comparison can be very interesting if one wants to explore the similarities and differences between professional associations in various industries especially in terms of regulation and control, education and training, legislation, ethical issues and public interest.develops an information system and disseminates up-to-date marketing and technical-technological information in Slovenia and abroad, integrating with other information systems for this purpose; -is involved in the promotion of business relations in domestic and foreign markets; is a member of and joins international associations of craft and of SMEs; -promotes the introduction of modern technologies and quality standards, modern methods of managing and organising companies and craft cooperatives; -provides for the preservation and development of traditional and artistic crafts; performs other tasks in the interest of its members, as defined in its by-laws and the annual action programme (13).
issues signs for taxi transport services indicating data concerning the transport operator and licence number (13).interest and other income from the performance of the Chamber's tasks (16).

Medical Chamber of
The Veterinary Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia and its operations The purpose of veterinary medicine in general is to maintain and improve animal health, protect animals from infectious and other diseases, diagnose diseases and treat sick animals, ensure animal welfare, provide measures to protect the public from various diseases and infections, and pursue other objectives for the benefit of animals (18).
The Veterinary Chamber is an autonomous and independent professional organisation.Its members are doctors of veterinary medicine from the entire territory of the Republic of Slovenia.It represents and promotes their professional, economic and social interests.Another purpose of the Chamber is to ensure the quality of its members' work and uphold its reputation (19).It supports all its members in their work, encouraging cooperation between them and with the Chamber.It is also committed to preventing and resolving any disagreements and disputes amicably and in a dignified manner (20).
The law that contains several articles that regulate the Veterinary Chamber is the Veterinary Practice Act (18).Based on Articles 58 and 60 of the Veterinary Practice Act, the Assembly of the Veterinary Chamber of Slovenia adopted the by-laws of the Veterinary Chamber of Slovenia in 2014.These by-laws regulate the status, organisation, powers and operation of the Chamber (15).
As defined, Chamber membership is on an individual basis and represents a professional honour common to all doctors of veterinary medicine.It can be mandatory, voluntary or honorary (15).Membership is mandatory for every doctor of veterinary medicine practising veterinary activity in Slovenia as referred to in Article 51 of the Veterinary Practice Act (18), who must hold a veterinary licence.Voluntary members are doctors of veterinary medicine with permanent residence in Slovenia who are not in practise.Honorary membership is awarded by the Assembly of the Chamber on the proposal of the Board of Directors, which must be in accordance with the Rules (21).All rights, duties, and other information on membership are specified in the by-laws of the Veterinary Chamber.The membership fee is payable quarterly and is determined by the Annual General Assembly based on the financial statement for the previous year and other factors.An individual can become a member of the Chamber after submitting a complete written application showing that he or she meets all legal membership criteria.If a doctor of veterinary medicine has been subject to a precautionary measure prohibiting them from practicing their profession as part of criminal proceedings, the application will be rejected or the member will be removed from the membership list if they are an existing member.
After the measure has ended, they may reapply for membership in the Chamber.Membership is also terminated if a member resigns from the Chamber in accordance with the by-laws, if certain membership criteria are not met, and in cases referred to in Articles 13, 17 and 54 of the by-laws (15).
According to the Act (18), the licence, which is the main document for the practise of veterinary medicine (activity), is granted to a doctor of veterinary medicine who has completed a university degree in veterinary medicine in the Republic of Slovenia or another EU member state or a recognised diploma who has passed the state exam or a recognised professional examination and is a member of the Veterinary Chamber of Slovenia.The licence is valid for the period in which the prescribed conditions are met.The decision on the licence is issued to the doctor of veterinary medicine based on a written application upon the meeting of the prescribed conditions.The licence is renewed every 10 years.If during a period of 10 consecutive years, the veterinarian does not meet the conditions regarding professional training or fails the professional competency examination, the Veterinary Chamber sends them a written notification warning them in advance of licence suspension and setting a 1-year period to fulfil the conditions.A veterinarian can also fulfil the professional training requirement by passing the prescribed knowledge examination in accordance with the law governing veterinary medicine and the Rules on further expert training and proficiency tests in private veterinary practice.If the veterinarian does not complete the prescribed training within the additional period referred to in the preceding paragraph, the Director of the Veterinary Chamber will issue a decision revoking the licence until the prescribed conditions are fulfilled (22).
At the request of the Veterinary Chamber's tribunal, the licence can also be revoked for a period of three months to three years on the basis of a decision by the Director if it is proven that the veterinarian has committed serious violations or has not completed his professional training.At the end of this period, the veterinarian can reapply for the licence provided that he has completed his training.If a veterinarian is banned from practicing their profession as part of criminal proceedings, their licence will also be revoked for the duration of the measure imposed (18).
The Chamber performs numerous tasks that are also specified in the by-laws.The most important task of the Chamber is the granting and revoking of veterinary licences.In addition, the Chamber keeps a register of issued and revoked licences, organises the professional training of veterinary doctors and conducts the professional qualification examination of its members.It carries out regular and extraordinary inspections of veterinary organisations, verifies them and keeps a register of them.Moreover, it establishes standard operating procedures for services.One of its tasks is to participate in the preparation of regulations in the field of veterinary medicine and the marketing of medicinal products and their daily use.The Chamber is an essential element in the planning and implementation of professional training, specialisation, and employment of its members, to whom it provides legal, business and professional support.It promotes and strengthens cooperation and settles disputes and disagreements between the members.The Chamber adopts and possibly amends the Veterinary Code of Conduct, prevents irregularities and sanctions them, and performs other tasks in the field of veterinary medicine in line with the laws and the by-laws (15).Some of the mentioned tasks are performed by the Chamber on the basis of public powers according to the law governing veterinary medicine, namely issuing and revoking veterinary licences, keeping a register of licences, planning, monitoring and organising professional training and professional competency examinations, carrying out professional supervision in organisations, verifying organisations and keeping a corresponding register and setting prices for veterinary services.The Ministry responsible for veterinary medicine regularly agrees with the Chamber on the financing of these tasks in accordance with the law (15).In order to carry out these tasks, the Chamber must fulfil certain personnel, spatial and other requirements (18).The exercising of public powers requires the Assembly of the Veterinary Chamber of Slovenia to adopt regulations governing the issuance, renewal and revocation of licences and the keeping of the register of issued licences (22), the verification and control of the conditions prescribed for veterinary activity and the keeping of the register of veterinary organisations (23); expert supervision with consultation (24), provision of professional training and professional competency examination.
The Chamber is headed by the Director who manages the Chamber's Board of Directors and performs operational and executive tasks on its behalf.The Director is appointed on the basis of a public call for applications.It should be noted that the Director must be a veterinarian (18).The bodies of the Chamber include the Assembly, the President, the Vice President, the Board of Directors, the sections, the Prosecutor, the Deputy Prosecutor and the tribunal, as well as the Expert Committee, the Supervisory Board and the Election Committee.The Chamber Assembly is the highest body of the Chamber and comprises all members of the Chamber.It has certain powers, while its organisation and working methods are defined and regulated by the Rules of Procedure of the Chamber's Assembly.A regular meeting is convened at least once a year at the request of the President of the Chamber, whereas an extraordinary meeting can also be held in certain cases to address various matters.The Chamber is represented by its President, who also directs the work and chairs the Board of Directors.The term of office of the President is four years, with the possibility of re-election.Any member of the Chamber can run for President, provided such member has collected 50 handwritten signatures of the other members in support of his candidacy.The President performs certain tasks specified in the by-laws and other acts.The President is assisted by the Vice President, who contributes to their work.The Vice President is also responsible for the Chamber's international operations and represents the President in his absence.The conditions for the post of Vice President are the same as for nominating and electing the President i.e. any member of the Chamber who has collected at least 50 handwritten signatures of the other members can apply for the position.A candidate may apply for the position of President and Vice President at the same time (15).
Another important body of the Chamber is the Board of Directors, which is a decision-making and consultation body.It consists of the President, the Vice President, the Chair of the Expert Committee, the presidents of sections, the Director and one representative for every 150 members.
The Board of Directors has certain powers and tasks as specified in Article 39 of the by-laws and is accountable for its decisions to the Assembly of the Chamber.The members of the Chamber form the sections for the purpose of ensuring specialised operations of the Chamber and its members.The Chamber has two permanent sections, both of which have their own bodies and perform specific tasks.Another body of the Chamber is the Prosecutor, who is an autonomous and independent body of the Chamber.The candidate who receives the most votes is elected as the Prosecutor.Each Prosecutor has a deputy.The tribunal is also an autonomous and independent body of the Chamber, consisting of first-and second-instance tribunals.It is tasked with initiating proceedings against an individual on the proposal of the Prosecutor.Other bodies include the Expert Commission, which consists of seven members and carries out specific tasks, the Supervisory Board, a three-member autonomous and independent body, whose task is to supervise the material and financial operations of the Chamber, and the Election Committee, which also consists of three members and certain powers and duties in accordance with the by-laws (15).
The Assembly of the Chamber adopts the annual work programme and the annual financial plan, based on which its operations are financed.Two types of financing are defined, namely regular financing for the period between two consecutive Annual General Assembly meetings, and temporary financing, which is initiated if the proposed financing plan for the following year is not adopted at the Annual General Assembly.However, temporary funding can only be provided for a maximum of 3 months (15).
The funds for the operation of the Veterinary Chamber are acquired through joining fees, membership fees and other contributions from members, by organising and performing various professional tasks, by preparing and implementing mandatory professional training, from specialisation fees, by investing funds in commercial transactions, publishing and issuing activities, budget funds for the exercise of public powers, through donations and in other ways or from other sources (15).
The Veterinary Chamber also collaborates with authorities on the international level and is thus a member of the Federation of Veterinarians of Europe, in which three sections are represented: the Practising Veterinarians, the Veterinarians working in Education, Veterinary Research and Industry, and the Hygienists and Public Health Veterinarians.In addition, the Veterinary Chamber of Slovenia is a member of the Višegrad Vet Plus Group, which includes the chambers and associations of Central and Eastern Europe.It comprises 13 members, who meet twice a year.The Chamber has signed a protocol on cooperation, and the exchange of practices and experiences with other chambers in both Europe and around the world (25).
The Detective Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia and its operations The Detective Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia (DeZRS) is an organisation that protects the reputation, credibility and development of the activity of private detectives.In addition, it represents the interests of private detectives and performs other tasks stipulated by the law, the by-laws and other acts (16).It was founded in 1994 at the first Founding General Assembly of the Detective Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia, at which the first by-laws and the symbol of the Chamber were adopted, and its initial management team (26) was elected.
In the course of their work, private detectives are bound by the Code of Professional Ethics, whereby they undertake to carry out all private detective duties in accordance with the highest moral and ethical principles."I recognise the badge of my profession as a symbol of social trust awarded time to guard by the Detective Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia.I shall protect it throughout, with loyalty to the ethics of private detective profession.I shall always strive to achieve this goal and the ideals of my chosen profession and be an honourable private detective" (27).
On the basis of the Private Detective Services Act (17), the Assembly of the Detective Chamber of the Republic of Slovenia adopted its by-laws at an Extraordinary General Assembly on December 23rd, 2011 and at the Annual General Assembly on April 18th, 2012 (16).
Membership in the chamber is mandatory for all domestic and foreign private detectives who perform private detective work as a freelance profession in the Republic of Slovenia or are employed by a legal or natural person registered as a business entity performing private detective activity in the Slovenian Business Register (16).
The tasks of the Chamber include monitoring and addressing private detective work and issues, representing the professional and social interests of its members, defending the honour and good reputation of the private detective profession and its members against unjustified and unfounded accusations, reprimands and interventions by state authorities, providing them with legal, material and moral assistance and, if necessary, providing professional and legal assistance in proceedings before the state and other authorities.In addition, the Chamber keeps and manages records of private detectives who are citizens of the Republic of Slovenia; foreign private detectives who are authorised to work in the Republic of Slovenia under the professional title "private detective"; foreign private detectives entitled to perform private detective activity in the Republic of Slovenia under the professional title granted by their home country; records of issued and revoked private detective licences; private detective companies providing private detective services in Slovenia; disciplinary measures imposed; permits issued for the registration of a private detective company in the court register and other records.In addition,, the Chamber regulates the disciplinary liability of private detectives, constituting a breach of professional duties, as well as actions which amount to a breach of a private detective's duty of care, and regulates the procedure before the Tribunal of Honour (16).
In addition to the tasks described above, the Chamber performs tasks such as adopting the Code of Professional Ethics; proposing to the Ministry responsible for internal affairs a programme for professional training, professional standards and catalogues of professional knowledge and skills, and the method of taking the private detective exam; proposing to the Ministry a private detective identification card, and organising and conducting regular training for private detectives.The work and operation of the Detective Chamber are supervised by the Ministry of the Interior, which is primarily responsible for monitoring the performance of the Chamber's tasks and its exercise of public powers (28).
Within the scope of its public powers, the Chamber performs tasks such as granting and revoking private detectives' licences and, in agreement with the Ministry of internal affairs, determines the examination programme for private detectives and the manner in which the private detective examination is taken.It also conducts professional supervision over the work of private detectives and private investigation companies.The Board of the Chamber decides on the granting or revocation of a licence to perform private detective work as well as on the issuance of consent for the registration of foreigners or a foreign private investigation company on the register of private detectives operating in the territory of the Republic of Slovenia, and on other matters related to the performance of tasks within the scope of public authority, in accordance with the provisions of the Private Detective Services Act (17).It is also important to point out that in certain cases the Ministry can withdraw the public powers of the competent body.This is the case when the body, in this case the Chamber, grants or revokes a licence illegally, without grounds or in violation of the law; when records are not kept in accordance with the law; if the Chamber does not comply with the deadlines and procedures for the recognition of professional qualifications of foreign private detectives and if when does not have a qualified person to manage the administrative procedures and regarding the recognition of professional qualifications and to make decisions.If the body fails to eliminate the irregularities within a certain period, the Ministry will withdraw its public powers until the irregularities are eliminated (17).
The bodies of the Chamber include the Assembly, the Board of Directors, the President, the Supervisory Board and the Tribunal of Honour.The Assembly is the highest body of the Chamber and consists of all private detectives who are entered in the register of private detectives kept by the Chamber.Its powers comprise the adoption of the Chamber's by-laws and other general legal acts; the adoption of the Code of Professional Ethics of Private Detectives of the Republic of Slovenia; the adoption of the Chamber's Rules of Procedure, the election and discharge of the President and Vice-President, the members of the Board of Directors, the Supervisory Board, the Chair and members of the Tribunal of Honour and others.The Assembly is convened as required, and at least once a year on the initiative of the Board of Directors or at the request of at least 30 private detectives.Decisions on amendments and supplements to the founding charter, adoption of and amendments and supplements to the by-laws, status changes of the Chamber, the cessation of operations of the Chamber and other matters are adopted with a majority of the Chamber's members present.Another of the Chamber's bodies is the Board of Directors, which manages the work and operations of the Chamber.It consists of nine members elected by the Assembly for a four year term of office.The work of the Board of Directors is managed by the President of the Chamber or, in their absence, by the Vice-President.The Board of Directors has certain powers, such as convening the Assembly of the Chamber and preparing the relevant materials, implementing resolutions adopted by the Assembly; formulating draft by-laws, the Code of Professional Ethics of Private Detectives and other general acts, organising and conducting regular professional training, appointing and dismissing the Chamber's Secretary, adopting general legal acts of the Chamber that have not been adopted by the Assembly, and more.Meetings are convened and chaired by the President of the Chamber, who also represents the Chamber and acts on its behalf in Slovenia and abroad, implements the resolutions of the Assembly and the Board of Directors, grants detectives' licences and cards, awards Chamber awards, issues resolutions and decisions, approves payments and performs other tasks.In addition to the above-mentioned bodies, the Chamber has a Supervisory Board, consisting of three members, one of whom is the Chair.The main task of the Supervisory Board is to monitor the Chamber's financial transactions and, in particular, to review the financial transactions and financial situation of the Chamber at least twice a year and report thereon to the Board of Directors and the Assembly.After reviewing the year-end accounts of the Chamber, the Supervisory Board draws up a report thereon.The final body of the Chamber is the Tribunal of Honour, which consists of seven members, who are elected by the Assembly for a term of four years.It decides in disciplinary proceedings against detectives due to a breach of professional duty or a breach of a private detective's due care and diligence, and also in the case of the violation of the Code of Professional Ethics of Private Detectives, the Chamber's by-laws and other acts.Moreover, it decides in case of disputes between members of the Chamber or between the members and third parties.The proceedings against a detective due to a violation of Articles 38 and 52 of the by-laws may be instigated at the proposal of the Supervisory Board, the national supervisory authority, a member of the Chamber or the party concerned (16).
In addition to the above-mentioned bodies, the Professional Department of the Chamber and the Secretary managing it play an important role.The Secretary is also responsible for preparing materials required for the work of the Board of Directors and the Assembly as well as other bodies of the Chamber, the working bodies of the Assembly and the Board of Directors, and coordinates the work of the Chamber's bodies.The Secretary is appointed, for a fixed or indefinite period, and is dismissed by the Board of Directors of the Chamber.This position, for which an employment contract or a work contract is concluded, requires at least higher education in the relevant field and five years of professional experience (16).
The work and financial operations of the Chamber are financed by membership fees and other contributions from detectives; the Chamber s income from the performance of public powers and other services, the sale of services within the scope of the Chamber's business activity, fines imposed against detectives in disciplinary proceedings, gifts and legacies as well as interest and other income from the performance of tasks (16).
Membership is terminated when the detective's licence expires, if one of the conditions laid down in Article 15 of the Private Detective Services Act (ZDD-1) is met or if the licence is definitively revoked in accordance with to Article 9 of the by-laws, or if the Chamber ceases to operate (16).
In the event of a disciplinary breach by a detective, disciplinary measures may be imposed, such as a warning, a fine or a proposal to the Board of Directors to revoke the licence or prohibit the provision of cross-border services.
The measure is imposed in the case of a minor breach that is particularly insignificant in view of the circumstances in which it was committed and does not have serious consequences.A fine up to EUR 1,000 is imposed if the detective has obtained an unjustified financial advantage in the performance of a service, with a payment period of no less than 30 days and no more than 6 months.The proposal to revoke a licence refers either to a permanent revocation, a temporary suspension or a conditional revocation or a ban on the provision of cross-border services (16).

Comparison of the operation of chambers in Slovenia
As can be seen from Table 1, it is not surprising that there are no specific differences between the chambers, given that all chambers are based on the same basic law.The main or basic task of all chambers is to represent the interests of their members and to assist them in their business.
Each of the chambers focuses on its own field of activity, e.g. the Chamber of Commerce and Industry on the corporate sector and the economy, the Chamber of Craft and Small Business on crafts and companies, and the Medical Chamber on healthcare, medicine, and doctors.
Likewise, practically all chambers perform certain tasks within the scope of public authority.The performance of public tasks is carried out in accordance with the laws that regulate the scope of the chambers' tasks, in accordance with the regulations, on the basis of a corresponding concession or, if applicable, an authorization granted to the chamber by the relevant ministry.The chambers differ in terms of whether membership is mandatory or voluntary.In most professional chambers, membership is mandatory, in the vast majority of chambers of commerce membership is voluntary, and in mixed-type chambers membership is either mandatory or voluntary.Chambers' by-laws specify the conditions in which a person can become a member.As already mentioned, each chamber represents the interests of its members in the respective professional field for which it was founded.For example natural and legal persons who perform a craft or handicraft activity or any other for-profit or non-profit activity may join the Chamber of Craft and Small Business (13), companies and sole traders can join the Chamber of Commerce and Industry on a voluntary basis (3), everyone practising medicine in the capacity of physician in the territory of the Republic of Slovenia must join the Medical Chamber ( 14), doctors of veterinary medicine can join the Veterinary Chamber on mandatory or voluntary basis or as honorary members (15), and domestic and foreign private detectives who perform detective services in the Republic of Slovenia as a freelance profession or in a private investigation company are obliged to become members of the Detective Chamber (16).
A review of the chambers' by-laws shows that all chambers of commerce obtain funds for their operation from the monthly or annual membership fees.In addition, the vast majority of chambers of commerce receive designated funds provided by members on an interest basis, funds as payments for services rendered, funds acquired in the market, donations and gifts, and funds from the state budget.Some chambers receive funds from support contributions, funds based on European projects, publications issued, payments for granted public powers and from other sources.All professional chambers also finance their operations with membership fees or members' contributions, i.e., membership fees, joining fees and other payments, as well as from donations, gifts and other sources.Almost all professional chambers gain funds also from the activity for which they were founded.In addition, the vast majority of professional chambers secure financial resources through designated funds which their members provide on an interest basis.
The chambers differ in terms of the number of members.This number varies from chamber to chamber, which is mainly due to the different areas of competence and the scope of certain activities in Slovenia.
A closer comparison of the Veterinary and Detective Chambers -the central chambers in our research -immediately reveals that their fields of activity are completely different.The Veterinary Chamber operates in the field of veterinary medicine, while the Detective Chamber operates in the field of detective activity.The Veterinary Chamber includes doctors of veterinary medicine practising throughout Slovenia (19), while the Detective Chamber includes domestic and foreign private detectives who perform detective services in various ways in Slovenia (16).
The by-laws of the Veterinary Chamber were adopted in 2014 (15) and those of the Detective Chamber at an extraordinary meeting in 2011 and at a regular meeting in 2012 (16).Both documents define membership in the respective chamber.Membership in the Veterinary Chamber is mandatory, voluntary or honorary, whereas in the Detective Chamber it is mandatory for all detectives working in the Republic of Slovenia.Members of both chambers have certain rights and duties, which include the payment of a predetermined membership fee.
All the tasks performed by the chambers are defined in their by-laws.Some are very similar to each other; namely, both chambers issue and revoke licences in their respective field, keep registers or records of licences and supervise the operations -of veterinary organisations and detectives, respectively.Other tasks differ, but what is important is that both chambers perform their tasks with the aim of representing the interests of their members, defending their honour and reputation or the chamber's good name.Some tasks specified in the by-laws or laws are performed by the chambers based on public powers in accordance with the laws governing either veterinary medicine or private detective work.
Both chambers have certain bodies that perform various tasks and are very important for the chamber's overall operation.It is evident from the chambers' by-laws and legal acts that the Veterinary Chamber has many more bodies than the Detective Chamber.Nevertheless, the two chambers have some identical bodies, which perform very similar and even identical tasks.In both chambers, the highest body is the Assembly, in which all members are represented.Another body that operates in both chambers is the Board of Directors, i.e., a decision-making and consultation body, which also manages the work and operations of the respective chamber.Both chambers have a President, who carries out certain tasks and in the Veterinary Chamber answers to the Assembly, and in the Detective Chamber to the Board of Directors.In the absence of the President, the Vice President acts in their place.The Supervisory Board in both chambers consists of three members and is an autonomous and independent body supervising the material and financial operations of the Veterinary Chamber (15), whereas in the Detective Chamber it conducts only financial supervision (16).
The chambers are financed in a very similar way, i.e. through membership fees, admission fees and other contributions from members, donations, gifts and legacies as well as other sources.The chambers also obtain funds in other ways, namely the Veterinary Chamber through the organisation and performance of various professional tasks, through specialisation fees and in other ways (15).The performance of the public powers by the Veterinary Chamber is financed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food through the Administration of the Republic of Slovenia for Food Safety, Veterinary Sector and Plant Protection.The Detective Chamber also acquires funds through various membership fees and payments, fines, and funds from the sale of services, as well as in other ways (16).In reviewing the two statutes, we noted a difference in the funding of functions based on public powers.The Veterinary Chamber receives funds from the budget of the Republic of Slovenia for the tasks it performs on the basis of public powers.The Ministry in charge of the veterinary sector and the Chamber regularly agree on the amount in accordance with the law (15).The by-laws of the Detective Chamber do not contain an article on the financing of tasks based on public powers.It can therefore be concluded that the Chamber does not receive any funding for this purpose.The activities of the Veterinary Chamber and Detective Chamber can be described as to be very similar, despite of the fact that they cover very different professions.Although both chambers are specialised organisations, they have common goals namely ensuring high standards of practice, ethical conduct, and concern for the public good.In this way, they contribute to the development of the profession and to the lawful and professional performance of tasks assigned to them by the state within the scope of public powers and public tasks, in numerous fields and as part of various financial and other frameworks.In summary, both chambers operate similarly, in a similar way, naturally in a manner adapted to the profession in respect of which they were originally established.

Conclusions
There are many interpretations and definitions of what a chamber actually is, and each differs from the other in a few small details.Nevertheless, it can be stated that chambers are a type of community that brings together individuals or groups practicing the same profession.Chambers differ in terms of their status, their entities, their number of members, their powers, their tasks and other aspects.In terms of their status, they are divided into public-law and privatelaw, and in terms of entities, they are classified into chambers of commerce, professional chambers, and mixed-type chambers.What all chambers have in common is that they have developed or emerged from the same law, i.e., the Chambers of Commerce and Industry Act (4).Each chamber has its own by-laws, wherein it defines its tasks, public powers, bodies, financing, and all other relevant matters.
The main tasks of each chamber is to pursue the objectives and interests of its members and to represent them.Also very important are the tasks performed within the framework of public powers, which differ from chamber to chamber depending on the activity or field for which the chamber was established.
The research examines in more detail the Veterinary Chamber and the Detective Chamber, and includes a comparison of the two.
The Veterinary Chamber (15) and the Detective Chamber and practically all other chambers in the chamber system of the Republic of Slovenia are financed by membership fees and from other contributions, income of the chamber from the performance of public powers and other services (16).In this respect, we would like to point out that not all chambers are financed for the performance of tasks within the scope of public authority, which leaves room for improvement in such a ways that all chambers receive funds in the same way for the tasks they perform for the state on the basis of public powers.The legislation to be applied to the activities of the chambers must also be regulated and defined.In this context, the General Administrative Procedure Act (29) should be reasonably applied or its application defined.We would like to emphasise that in any amendment of laws and other regulations and acts relevant to the chambers they should be considered as partners participating in the procedures and processes, and only merely as enforcers of legislation enacted without their participation.In view of our focus and the detailed presentation of veterinary and detective activities, it is also important to point out some of the risks and obstacles faced by the two chambers.Particularly problematic is the fact that many people decide for important services, such as veterinary services, only because of the low prices and discounts they receive, which means they are more exposed to the risk of a lesser-quality service and the use of cheap materials and medicines.As far as the Detective Chamber is concerned, the biggest problem are the individuals who perform detective work without a licence, which the inspectors do not discover at all, as they are more focused on checking whether private investigation companies with valid licences are operating and carrying out their activities, and whether other companies that are not allowed to perform detective work or this work does not fall under their jurisdiction are doing it anyway.Another major problem is public's lack of awareness or ignorance about the detective work itself and what detective work actually is.Many people do not realise that they can turn to private investigation companies in many situations for help, because too little is said about it and the clarification is inadequate.It can be concluded that the chambers are very similar and operate in n a similar way.Both the Veterinary Chamber and the Detective Chamber perform core tasks in their field of activity; nevertheless, like everyone else, they face various challenges in their operations and activities that need to be resolved immediately to ensure smooth operations, which is particularly important for all their members, i.e. veterinarians and detectives.

Table 1 :
The operation, public powers and financing of the selected three Chambers in Slovenia

Chamber of Craft and Small Business of Slovenia
the European Economic Area, the Swiss Confederation and the country with which a relevant international agreement has been concluded, third-country citizens who have obtained professional qualifications in a member state of the European Union, the European Economic Area or in the Swiss Confederation and third-country citizens, in accordance with the second paragraph of Article 2 of the Act Regulating the Procedure for Recognition of Professional Qualifications for Practising Regulated Professions or Professional Activities in the Republic of Slovenia for Nationals of the EU Member States, European Economic Area and Swiss Confederation, Official Gazette of the RS, nos.21/02, 92/07, 85/09 and 55/12);