Mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction of mother with toddler on family resilience during pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has both positive and negative impacts on individuals in affected areas. For mothers who have many roles at home, this impact can cause stress due to sudden changes in the family. Therefore, it is important to know whether mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction are important factors for family resilience. This study used a quantitative approach to examine the roles of those factors. Data obtained using Walsh Family Resilience Questionnaire, Interpersonal Mindful Parenting, Self-Efficacy Parenting Task Index-Toddler Scale Short Form and ENRICH Marital Satisfaction (EMS) Scale were analyzed by multiple regression. Based on data from 116 mothers who have toddlers ( M age = 28.46, SD = 3.14), it is known that the associations of mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction predict 50% of family resilience positively. Furthermore, marital satisfaction provides the largest significant unique contribution, followed by a smaller contribution by parenting self-efficacy, while mindful parenting did not. This shows that internal and external factors by the mother both contribute to creating a resilient family during the Covid-19 Pandemic, thus, it is essentially important to ensure that mothers receive good support from their partners and are confident in providing positive care for their children.


Introduction
Since 2020, the world has been facing the global spread of the Covid-19 outbreak (Pandemic), and Indonesia is one of them.This Pandemic has caused various changes in aspects of human life due to the necessity to carry out physical distancing and home quarantine as well as the implementation of Large-Scale Social Restrictions (LSSR), in mid-2020 and continued with public activity restrictions for outdoor activities (Humas Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia, 2021).These impacts changing routines, where outdoor activities usually carried out in offices, schools, or other public places are limited and even closed to avoid crowds and encourage work, study, and play activities to be carried out at home (work from home).Along with this sudden change in routines, problems arise, adding more stressors, especially within the family.
The provision of carrying out various activities from home affects the routines changing of each individual in a family.Family members spend time together in the same place 24 hours a day, but at the same time, this brings another stressor.While everyone in the house has their own activities and responsibilities that they must do, parents might face financial problems, future uncertainty, and loss of emotional control (frustration), which can lead to increased anxiety, stress, and negative emotions (Winurini, 2020).In addition, in a pandemic

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
The COVID-19 pandemic has both positive and negative impacts on individuals in affected areas.For mothers who have many roles at home, this impact can cause stress due to sudden changes in the family.Therefore, it is important to know whether mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction are important factors for family resilience.This study used a quantitative approach to examine the roles of those factors.Data obtained using Walsh Family Resilience Questionnaire, Interpersonal Mindful Parenting, Self-Efficacy Parenting Task Index-Toddler Scale Short Form and ENRICH Marital Satisfaction (EMS) Scale were analyzed by multiple regression.Based on data from 116 mothers who have toddlers (M age = 28.46,SD = 3.14), it is known that the associations of mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction predict 50% of family resilience positively.Furthermore, marital satisfaction provides the largest significant unique contribution, followed by a smaller contribution by parenting self-efficacy, while mindful parenting did not.This shows that internal and external factors by the mother both contribute to creating a resilient family during the Covid-19 Pandemic, thus, it is essentially important to ensure that mothers receive good support from their partners and are confident in providing positive care for their children.situation, a mother is required to be able to juggle many responsibilities such as working (for those who work), doing housework (e.g.cooking), and caring for and/or supervising toddler's activities (playing and learning).This is because mothers with toddlers are the most important key figure in this development stage for the child to develop a secure attachment and regularity in "play" activities (Pallant, 2020).Therefore, if the mother's focus is divided between caring for toddlers and doing house chores while helping other family members who also have work and school at home, mothers psychological state might collapse at one point.Furthermore, mothers are demanded to adapt to the sudden changing routines at home and outside.This is why 'it's important to know whether mothers with toddler have good family resilience so they can together adapt to the situation well.
Family resilience is a dynamic interaction process that occurs within the family and how the family adapts to life challenges (Walsh, 2016).According to Walsh, a family is a functional unit that works as a system where the family resilience results from a process.Family resilience depends on the family's strengths and resources when facing problems together, such as the Covid-19 pandemic (Walsh, 2020).This construct has three main subdomains, namely family belief systems which is related to beliefs and values instilled in the family, organizational factors which is related to structure and connectedness within the family, and family communication style which is related to communication processes done by family members (Walsh, 2016).
Previous research shows that for families to remain resilient in the Covid-19 pandemic situation, as one of the main life challenges currently, family belief systems have an important role in encouraging family members to be able to find positive meaning (meaning-making) and positive-outlook of problems and challenges that arise simultaneously (Gayatri & Irawaty, 2022).This could help mothers to find any good aspects out of the negative situation (Pandemic) so they could stay positive, and the toddlers also got positive influence during "play" session.In addition, organizational factors act as a source of support to create flexibility so that families can rebound when facing various stressors during home quarantine and work/study from home (Walsh, 2020).Being flexible in facing sudden changes of routines is needed so family members can all help each other complete their responsibilities together.Lastly, a good communication process also plays an important role because it means family members can convey feelings and solve problems that arise together like when the mother needs time to take a break from interacting with toddlers and ask the spouse to help her so mother can gain herself again and get back with a better state.
As mentioned above, various variables are potential as protective factors in how family resilience is well formed in the family.Mothers, as the key figures for toddler developmental tasks and those with more responsibilities, especially in the Covid-19 Pandemic, are directly faced with problems related to their relationship to their spouses and children, especially toddlers.Therefore, 'it is only fair to look at which factors from a mother-toddler and motherfather relationships highly relate to family resilience dynamics.From the mother's point of view, the relationship between mother and toddler can be observed in how the mother raises and cares for her child dearly.This is especially more important for toddlers because they need the mother's role as a key figure in parenting to help them grow properly (Miller, 2016).Good parenting is done when mothers put their minds into their children's activities attentively.This parenting is called mindful parenting.
Mindful parenting is a new concept that integrates practices and principles of mindfulness into the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of parents in a parenting context, engenders compassion, acceptance, and kindness in the parent-child relationship, as well as the presence of attentive parents in the parent-child interactions (Duncan et al., 2009).In Indonesia, mindful parenting has been one of the main strategies of the Ministry of Education and Culture to encourage parents and teachers to nurture 'child's development positively at home and school (Kiong, 2015).Mindful parenting consists of five dimensions, namely listening attentively (eling), acceptance in a non-judgmental way of self and child, understanding of self and 'child's emotional states, self-regulation in parenting relationships, and compassion towards self and child (welas asih) (Duncan et al., 2009;Kiong, 2015).By applying mindfulness practices in the interaction between mothers and toddlers, especially during COVID-19 pandemic, they can develop a good parent-child connection and learn to enjoy the moment more (Heifetz, 2022).
Several previous studies reported that parental and maternal mindful parenting are associated with more positive parenting styles, reduced parenting stress, positive interactions between parents and children, as well as positive effects on the psychological functioning of parents and children (Sofyan, 2018;Wong et al., 2019).This positive interaction could be related to a positive communication style.'That's why it is important to know whether 'mothers' use of good mindful parenting in nurturing their 'child's development during the Covid-19 Pandemic help enhance family resilience.
While mindful parenting is an important factor due to the presence of positive interaction between mothers and toddlers, prior research shown that parental competence, or 'parent's feeling and beliefs about their competency in parenting, is one of the key variables in predicting protective factors of family resilience (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001).Because mother is the key figure in 'toddler's development, it would be insightful to find if 'mother's feelings and beliefs about their competence, or self-efficacy, in her parenting would be best at predicting family resilience.Parenting self-efficacy itself is defined as an estimate of the judgment given by an individual related to his competence as a parent, or how parents perceive the ability to shape behavior and encourage positive child development (Coleman & Karraker, 1998).The parenting self-efficacy construct provides an overview of the knowledge possessed by parents related to parenting skills appropriate for the child's development as well as confidence in carrying out duties as an older person.Parents with high parenting self-efficacy tend to show positive parenting practices and behaviors and could create comfortable and enjoyable nurturing environments.In contrast, low parenting selfefficacy allows parents to feel more overwhelmed when faced with multiple parenting hurdles, to the point of triggering parental stress.
Based on Coleman & Karraker (1998), originally there are seven different parenting subdomains considered appropriate to describe the domain of parenting self-efficacy.First, emotional availability refers to the emotional relationship that exists between children and parents, as parents can hint at and understand the emotional expression of children.Second, nurturance is related to how parents raise, appreciate, and display an empathetic response to their children.Third, protection is related to how parents protect children from danger.Fourth, discipline is related to how parents apply discipline and provide limits to children.Fifth, play, related to activities parent-directed child play, especially in the early years of development children.Sixth, teaching is related to how parents play an important role in seeking the development and education of children.Seventh, instrumental care, or routine, is related to how parents apply routines appropriately to the child.Prior research has found that mindful parenting could reduce 'mothers' (of school-aged children) parental stress (Srifianti et al., 2022), and this could further help increase 'mothers' well-being.Study has shown that parenting self-efficacy has a strong positive affect on family resilience during the Covid-19 on parents with children aged 4 to 18 years old (Cihan & Var, 2022) but 'it's not really known for children under 4 years old (toddler).
Another relationship to be looked up is mother-father relationship as the main caregivers in the family.Crisis Covid-19 can influence 'couples' marital satisfaction because of access to the outside world (like close friends or extended family members), so they could only rely on support from each other.Marital satisfaction is defined as a mental state that reflects the benefits that are perceived and the effort expended by individuals in a marital relationship (Fowers & Olson, 1989).This means that someone will feel higher satisfaction towards marriage and spouses if they perceive greater benefits than the effort expended.Based on ENRICH Marital Satisfaction, marital satisfaction consists of two dimensions: marital satisfaction (positive aspects of marriage) and idealized distortion (social desirability aspects) (Fowers & Olson, 1993).Fowers & Olson (1989, 1993) identified ten different domains considered the most contributing to marital satisfaction itself; interpersonal problems include communication, resolution of conflict, sex, commitment, and roles, while external problems can come from relatives, friends, children, parenting style, and financial condition.The various domains developed based on various theories and empirical analyses summarized in their research.
Previous research has found that couples'' couples' satisfaction in their relationships has a strong and greater effect on family resilience during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong (Wong et al., 2022).Also, it was found that 'women's level of self-efficacy partially mediated the relationship between 'couples' satisfaction and family resilience (Pănoi et al., 2018).However, it was also found that during the Covid-19 pandemic, mothers tend to perceive the situation as stressful, which influences their perception of ineffectively caring for their children (Gniewosz, 2022).While some studies found different relationships how mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and couples'' couples' satisfaction could influence family resilience independently, more research is needed on this topic.The lack of understanding on how those three factors, from a mother's perspective, could collectively predict family resilience as the three represented a mother's perspective, could collectively predict family resilience as the three represented mother's relationship with other family members.As Walsh (Walsh, 2016a) has stated before, that family function as a unit where everyone influences each other that makes the family could withstand and rebound from crises and challenges.This is why the current 'study's purpose ought to find if 'toddlers' mothers' mindful parenting, self-efficacy in parenting and marital satisfaction also has strong positive impact directly on family resilience.
The formation of family resilience does not only occur because of the adaptation of each individual from each family member but is formed from the interaction between family members who influence each other (Walsh, 2016).Therefore, this study aims to explore how mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction of mothers with toddlers enhance stronger family resilience during the Covid-19 Pandemic.Specifically, it is hypothesized that mothers' family resilience is predicted by marital satisfaction, parenting self-efficacy, and mindful parenting together as a whole.Another hypothesis is that those factors independently influence family resilience (have their own unique contributions).

Method
This study uses a quantitative approach to explore the factors around mothers that contribute to predicting family resilience, such as mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction.This research has passed an ethical review from the ethical committee of the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia with number 067/FPsi.KomiteEtik/PDP.04.00/2021.

Participants
The sampling method used was the convenience sampling technique (Tabachnick et al., 2019).Participants in this study were mothers aged 21-40 years and had child(ren) who were toddlers or 1-3 years old at the time the research was conducted (54.31% were male).Data collection was carried out online by distributing links to fill out questionnaires for individuals who fit the criteria and are willing to become participants.Participants involved in this study were 116 mothers (21 -37 years old with M = 28.46,SD = 3.14).

Instruments
There are four main variables examined in this study.First, family resilience was measured using the Indonesian adaptation of Walsh Family Resilience Questionnaire or shortened as WFRQ (Walsh, 2016) by Nasa (2012).This instrument could be used to measure family resilience represented by one of its member views of how the family face crises and challenges (mother).WFRQ originally has a total of 32 items, which are divided into three components Belief System, Organizational Factors, and Communication Style.But, four items were dropped because of their low rit score, so the total became 28 items.This instrument is a Likert scale using four options: (1) Very inappropriate to (4) Very appropriate.The scale has a good internal consistency coefficient α = 0.931 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.396 to 0.696.
Second, mindful parenting was measured using Indonesian adaptation of Interpersonal Mindful Parenting or shortened as IM-P (Duncan et al., 2009).IM-P originally consists of 31 items divided into five dimensions, namely Listening with Full Attention (LFA), Compassion for the Self and Child (CSC), Non-Judgmental Acceptance of Self and Child (NJASC), Emotional Awareness of Self-and Child (EASC), and Self-Regulation in the Parenting Relationship (SRPR).This instrument was adapted by Marsaulina (2021).But, ten items were dropped because of their low rit score, so the total became 21 items.This instrument is a Likert scale using five options: (1) Rarely to (5) Always.The scale has a good internal consistency coefficient α = 0.870 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.302 to 0.667.
Third, parenting self-efficacy was measured using the Self-Efficacy Parenting Task Index-Toddler Scale Short Form (SEPTI-TS SF) (Coleman & Karraker, 1998).SEPTI-TS originally has a total of 53 items which are divided into seven subdomains, however, in this study, the short version was used which consisted of 23 items and four subdomains namely nurturance, discipline, play, and routines.The instrument used for this study was the Indonesian adaptation version (Lubis, 2015).But, three items were dropped because of their low rit score, so the total became 20 items.This instrument is a Likert scale using four options: (1) Strongly disagree to (4) Strongly agree.The scale has a good internal consistency coefficient α = 0.878 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.323 to 0.653.The fourth variable marital satisfaction was measured using the ENRICH Marital Satisfaction (EMS) Scale (Fowers & Olson, 1993).The instrument has been adapted to Indonesian from the original and consists of 20 items that measure Marital Satisfaction and Idealistic Distortion (Nishfiyaningsih, 2009).But, three items were dropped because of their low rit score, so the total became 17 items.This instrument is a Likert scale using four options: (1) Very inappropriate to (4) Very appropriate.The scale has a good internal consistency coefficient α = 0.892 and corrected total-item correlation ranging from 0.375 to 0.636.
In addition to these four main instruments, participants were also asked about their demographic data such as age, age of children, age of marriage, employment status, family income in a month, and so on.This demographic data is used as complementary data in discussing the results of the analysis obtained (covariate variables).

Data Analysis
The data obtained were then analyzed using JASP (JASP Team, 2022).The analysis was performed through a Pearson correlation test and multiple regression to test the hypotheses proposed.2, it is known that the four main variables at least have one indicator that shows a normal distribution (based on the Z-score of skewness value or Kolmogorov-Smirnov or Shapiro-Wilk significance value > 0.05) so it can be concluded that each variable has a normal distribution (Pallant, 2020).Before carrying out the regression test, assumption tests were first carried out, namely multicollinearity by examining the Pearson correlation value and checking for outliers, normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity using the Q-Q Regression Standardized Residuals plot (Pallant, 2020).Pearson correlation test results showed that the three main variables, namely marital satisfaction, mindful parenting, and parenting self-efficacy were significantly positively correlated with family resilience.In addition, the r correlation value of marital satisfaction, mindful parenting, and parenting self-efficacy for family resilience did not exceed 0.9, as shown in Table 3, so it fulfills the assumption that multicollinearity did not occur.In addition, only a number of children positively correlated with family resilience.Next, based on the residual statistics, as shown in Table 4, and its standardized residuals histogram, the normality distribution of residual data showed a normal distribution.Furthermore, Q-Q plot standardized residuals follow a diagonal line, and no data deviated far from the line.Therefore, it can be concluded that the data has a normal residual distribution and no outliers that exceed the Durbin standard value.Multiple regression test was then performed using the JASP program.The results shown in Table 5.The association between mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction significantly predicted family resilience capacity by 50% (R 2 = 0.513, Adj.R 2 = 0.500, p = < 0.001, f 2 = 1.41) and showed a very large effect size (Cohen J, 1988).Therefore, the first hypothesis in this study was accepted that mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction together positively predict family resilience.This is also supported by the results of the F test, which showed that mindful parenting, parenting selfefficacy, and marital satisfaction simultaneously significantly predict family resilience.Then, the results of the regression coefficient analysis and part correlation coefficients specifically showed that the marital satisfaction (β = 0.476, t (113) = 6.300, p < .001)significantly made the largest unique contribution (17.22%) and was followed by parenting self-efficacy (β = 0.346, t(113) = 3.675, p < .001)with much smaller contribution (5.86%).However, mindful parenting (β = 0.016, t(113) = 0.179, p = 0.859) did not make a significant unique contribution to family resilience.The results also showed that only mindful parenting gave a very small contribution (Tabachnick et al., 2019).These are shown in Table 6.Based on these results, it is known that the second hypothesis was partially rejected, that only mothers' parenting self-efficacy and marital satisfaction significantly gave unique contributions to predicting good family resilience.

Discussion
This study aimed to examine if the combination of internal and external factors around mothers could predict family resilience and which factor gives more contribution.Before that, it's worth mentioning that most mothers in this study have spent more time together with their toddlers and working from home so they could directly build positive connections with the children and protect them from the negative effects of the Covid-19.Knowing that Walsh concept of family is seen as a functional system where the members' influence each other and could be measured by asking the perspective of one member about the way their family deals with adversities, this study focused on factors by mothers that could enhance better family resilience during Pandemic.The key protective factors of family resilience studied here are related to mother-child relationships: mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction.
Firstly, results show that the three variables associated together could predict higher family resilience positively.This means that mothers who have higher self-efficacy in acting positive parenting, while using mindful parenting and getting sufficient support and satisfaction in their marriage lives, will give a higher positive impact on their family's capability and process to adapt during the Covid-19 Pandemic than the ones who did not have those factors.
Previously, it was explained that family resilience is the dynamic process of coping and adapting life challenge which rely on the family's strength and resources at the time (Walsh, 2016).Family resilience consists of three main sub-domains, family belief system, organizational factors, and family communication style.Specifically, family belief system is related to parent's self-efficacy in parenting in the way that mother possess positive perspective of the stressful situation and good faith in facing the adversity (James, 2022;Walsh, 2016).Then, organizational factors is related to mother's satisfaction with the supports they get from spouses (Pănoi et al., 2018;Walsh, 2016;Wong et al., 2022).Lastly, communication process is related to collaboration of family members to solve problems together, clarity in communicating with each other, and being compassionate in caring for children mindfully (Sofyan, 2018;Walsh, 2016a;Wong et al., 2022).So, this help explained why the three predictors together are found to be important factors for mother to help enhance family resilience in the Covid-19 Pandemic.
Specifically, marital satisfaction has the biggest role.This is consistent with previous research, that marital satisfaction felt by mothers gives a big boost in creating a resilient family because communication with partners as parents or primary caregivers for toddlers goes well even in a pandemic situation (Pănoi et al., 2018;Rich et al., 2022;Wong et al., 2022).Then, parenting self-efficacy is proven to provide the second biggest role in creating a resilient family for mothers with toddlers.This is in line with previous research that parenting self-efficacy is one of the factors that predict the formation of a resilient family in mothers who have school-age children (Gniewosz, 2022).This shows that having better couples' satisfaction should come as the first concern in the family so the family will be resilient in facing crisis situations like the Covid-19.
The different results in this study are the findings that mindful parenting does not contribute much to family resilience like the other two.That is, even though the mother shows parenting patterns with mindful parenting, other factors such as the mother's satisfaction in married life with her partner and her belief in positive parenting must also accompany it.This is also thought to be due to the mindful parenting in this study being seen at one time in general, it has not reached the point where it can be shown whether the mindful parenting process is routinely carried out or not.In addition, it is also known that most family in this study shows relatively high levels on family resilience, parenting self-efficacy and marital satisfaction.It means that the participants here have good and functioning protective factors that influence their family resilience to be better.
Additional interesting findings in this study is related to the socio-demographic variables.The only characteristic of the family that had quite a good relationship with family resilience was the number of children, in which more children related to better family resilience.Despite the Pandemic that limits activities, and most mothers need to juggle more between working, parenting and doing household chores, the fact that more children (toddlers) actually support strong family resilience gives new insight.It is worth to underline that most mothers here have high education backgrounds and relatively high-level income (family income).Also, they are mostly working moms who work with full-time WFH (work from home) system or switching in-between WFH and WFO (work from office).Furthermore, most families are in an early stage of family life-cycle stage (age of marriage < 5 years), which is early parenting stage, as their first child is still a toddler (Walsh, 2002).Walsh also stated that different family life-cycle stages might lead to different challenges that need different factors to enhance resilient families.In fact, while these variables all show no moderate or strong direct correlation to family resilience, there might be indirect influences on their family resilience dynamics.
This study has some limitations.First, it was not known whether mothers used mindful parenting for all their children (some participants have more than one child) or it was for specific children.Knowing this in future research with the same study focus might help explain the pattern in the family process and the development of their family resilience.Lastly, many of the families in this study lived with their parents-in-law (39%), so it might be possible that the grandparents were helping the mothers care for children or otherwise mothers are getting other stressors from outside their main family.Future research might consider using actor-partner model analysis to explore whether mothers' and fathers' perspectives on the stated three main predictors in this study are correlated to one another as a more comprehensive way to examine what factors influence family resilience.Also, explore more in the questionnaire whether the parents get help on parenting toddlers by other relatives or not.

Conclusion
The association of mothers' mindful parenting, parenting self-efficacy, and marital satisfaction collectively contributed to enhancing positive family resilience.This suggests that mothers with higher use of mindfulness in parenting, self-efficacy in parenting, and marital satisfaction, their families will have higher family resilience to help them adapt to the Pandemic or even other similar adversities.Furthermore, the mother's marital satisfaction and parenting self-efficacy both uniquely contributed positively to family resilience, while mindful parenting did not.This means that mothers whose mindful parenting was good still needed other important factors to predict strong family resilience in this Covid-19 Pandemic.Feeling satisfied with marriage life is the biggest factor for mothers to enhance strong family resilience.That's why, in this situation where the Covid-19 pandemic made mothers more vulnerable to stress, their partner needs to give enough support to face sudden changes in daily life.In addition to this, more children related to more positive family resilience.

Table 2
Descriptions of Instruments / Scales

Table 3
Correlation Test

Table 4
Residual Statistics

Table 5
Linear Regression

Table 6
Coefficients Regression