Impact of Internal Political-Military Crisis on Feeling of Insecurity: Case of Abidjan Metropolis

Some experiences of violence directly or indirectly lived by the population during the Ivorian political-military crisis, helped put center stage the issue of the feeling of insecurity, particularly in Abidjan. This work addresses the question of crisis’ impact by comparing the before and after crisis feelings of insecurity. From 354 individuals surveyed before the crisis 93 were re-interviewed during an after crisis investigation. The sample was built according to an experimental plan of eight groups and interviewed by means of a multidimensional questionnaire. Results indicate an increase of after crisis feeling of insecurity as well as a rise of "bad faith of the people" and "Ineffectiveness of the judiciary" among the perceived main elements of insecurity.

It is well known that all peoples are threatened both internally and externally. This way, many conflicts have taken place between either a community and other communities or small units of the same community (Assoun, 2008;Patou-Mathis, 2013). These conflicts inherent in life lead to the use of violence (Bergeret, 2010), destroying material values and threatening human lives.
From a psychoanalytic point of view, violence that occurs during clashes between individuals or communities results from the manifestations of death instinct (Freud, 2013). This instinct is recognized as the one that wants to destroy and kill, unlike the life instinct that wants to conserve and unite. The use of violence leading to an exteriorization of aggressive impulses against external objects by means of some organs has a double effect in the individual. Violence tends to protect his existence by destroying the outward element, but at the same time the use of these instinctive forces for the outside world destruction provides some relief. In this context, the law introduced in society comes to control violence. This law leads each individual to renounce a part of his own freedom so that community life can continue in safety.
Nowadays, the primitive reign of force is replaced by a new form using instruments to serve a more brutal and intellectually supported violence (Brown, 1996). Armed conflicts in their present form have enormous consequences as a result of the use of increasingly sophisticated destruction devices. Many conflicts in the world cause tens of thousands of deaths within only a few days (Chagniot, 2001). Thus, the Libyan conflict of 2011 caused 10 000 deaths in just three days and that of the Democratic Republic of Congo, occurred between 1998 and 2003, caused up to 3 900 000 deaths! As reported by Kouassi (2012), the Ivorian postelectoral crisis of 2010-2011 resulted in the deaths of at least 3000 people, a catastrophe unprecedented in the history of Ivory Coast.
The damage caused by an intra-state conflict such as that occurred in Ivory Coast is not limited to loss of life. These damages are of various natures: they are physical, physicaldead, disabled for life, etc. -and mental. According to Rosay-Notz (2006), civilian populations are the main victims of this violence and are subject to deprivations of all kinds. The events accompanying the Ivorian conflict took place with particular acuity in the Abidjan metropolis.
In Abidjan, the big disparities between social classes expose the legal order to two main sources of disturbance. On the one hand there are the attempts of the ruling class to rise above the law, on the other hand there are the constant efforts of the dominated to broaden their power, which the ruling class is often not willing to consider. These two main sources of disturbance are partly responsible for the socio-political conflicts that occurred in the decade 2000-2010. Clashes during these conflicts have resulted in many internal displacements of people such as refugees who are forced to flee from their habitual environment with the aim of escaping death or atrocities (Cathelin, 2011). Internally displaced persons, although increasingly important and occasionally in a very lamentable situation (lack of housing, medical care, food, etc.), are often, unlike refugees in another state, deprived of any form of assistance (Zender, 2005).
In such a context, the feeling of insecurity can arise from real or imaginary violence, proceeding from the destructive instinct of human being. Thus, political-military conflicts, because of the disturbances they provoke in the individual's habitual environment, place him in a permanent anguish of an imminent danger. This makes it difficult for him to mobilize and invest his energy in activities enabling him to fulfill his share of the social contract (Rosay-Notz, 2006). The possibilities for the impact of the feeling of insecurity on the country's development can then be seen.
Concerns about the role of the feeling of insecurity in the development of society inspire us to discover the aspects of this feeling having undergone changes following the crisis in Ivory Coast. The objective of this research is therefore to study the impact of the political-military crisis on the feeling of insecurity within the city of Abidjan. After a first survey prior to the crisis, due to the difficult economic and social situation prevailing at the time, the second survey is of dual interest. On top of contributing to the progress of general knowledge about insecurity, particularly in the context of a political-military crisis, the study places the impact of the crisis in the double terms of its intensity and the perceived elements as being at its source. In general, the resolution of the issue of insecurity, not in its superficial aspects of repression, but in attacking its roots, that is to say the elements responsible for its outward show, in its sides as well objective as subjective, is imperative if decision-makers want to stimulate at least the internal investment. Like deviant behaviors, feelings of insecurity also hinder the achievement of social objectives and do not correspond to ideological rules of operation (Roché, 1998). In cases where Ivorians don't feel safe, they would certainly hesitate to invest -in all senses -in a troubled situation.
The facts and images reported in the press, the everyday behaviors of individuals, the exchanges and discussions held by the populations reveal feelings of fear which suggest that there would be a global rise in feelings of insecurity in Ivory Coast, due to the politicalmilitary crisis that this country has been through. Indeed, the threats caused by the politicalmilitary crisis are attracting attention as much by their number as by their forms and consequences (Kouadio et al., 2012). Such threats are likely to increase the feeling of insecurity, especially as these are internal conflicts of such complexity that a decade of negotiation has failed to resolve it. It is therefore important to question the reality of the growing feeling of insecurity following the crisis. This comes to the question of the impact of political-military crisis on the population's feeling of insecurity. The answer to this question comes back to know of course the evolution of the feeling of insecurity, but also the elements perceived by individuals as being at the source of insecurity. Finally, it will also be essential to take account of time in this evolution by studying the temporal perspective of this feeling of insecurity.
To account for this impact of the political-military crisis on the feeling of insecurity, the theory of vulnerability of Killias (1990) is used. This theory attempts to explain the feeling of insecurity by the level of perceived vulnerability, which depends on three key factors: degree of risk exposure, sense of loss of control and anticipation of negative consequences. The feeling of insecurity, defined as the consciousness of being at the mercy of events, appears to be a complex reality with two facets combined with vulnerability. One of these facets, concrete fear, driven by exposure to risk, and the other, abstract concern, driven by the weak ability to respond successfully to a threatening situation. Thus, the feeling of insecurity and adaptive behaviors associated with it (such as the avoidance of certain places, activities, moments or people) is conceived as a direct consequence of the feeling of vulnerability. This feeling essentially depends on the awareness [occurrence x gravity] of the potential risk of aggression. However, the impact of this awareness can be significantly moderated in the individual by evaluating his own control capacities on the threatening situation.
The vulnerability theory suggests, in support of the above works, that the perceived vulnerability, which is responsible for the feeling of insecurity, is the result of actual or potential victimization experiences. These observations lead to the following general and operational hypotheses: General hypothesis: the political-military crisis had a significant impact on the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan. Operational hypothesis: the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan is more accentuated after the political-military crisis than before.
The operational hypothesis that has just been issued stipulates that the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan is higher after the crisis than before. The pre-crisis period is before December 24, 1999, when the first putsch in the history of Ivory Coast took place, which would plunge the country into a decade of political-military instability. The post-crisis period is after the last clashes between the belligerent forces that officially end the political-military crisis in Ivory Coast. This operational hypothesis will be tested through an appropriate methodology that we will now describe.

Sample
The individuals selected for this study are from the city of Abidjan. This metropolis alone concentrates 20% of the national population and contains a heterogeneous population estimated in 2015 at 6 million inhabitants (Ins, 2015). This population is sampled to obtain credible data. We rely in part on the findings of previous studies that indicate that the feeling of insecurity is linked to environmental variables such as the surroundings, the neighborhood atmosphere, the reputation of the personal characteristics such as level of study, socioprofessional category, degree of integration in social networks (Duprez&Hedli, 1992). These findings lead us to construct the sample by controlling the three variables gender, marital status and nationality. The sample of the study is therefore based on a factorial plan taking into account these three variables. Thus, the sample of survey 1 (performed before the crisis) has the characteristics described by the 2 × 2 × 2 factorial plane of Table 1. It is observed in particular that the experimental groups have analogous numbers (χ2 = 2.26 ns). The sample 2 for post-crisis survey obeys to the same model as the sample 1 for pre-crisis survey. This second survey is designed to interview those who have already participated in the first survey in order to obtain readily comparable results. We therefore went back to the same places to re-interview the individuals of the first investigation. A total of 93 individuals who had already participated in the first survey were interviewed in the second survey. The characteristics of these 93 individuals are described in Table 2. We can also note that the experimental groups have analogous numbers: χ2 = 0.36 ns. The individuals thus selected have agreed to submit to our measurement tool.

Instrument and procedure
To each individual in the sample, a questionnaire was proposed to fulfill. This questionnaire consists of three sub-instruments. First, there is the characterization questionnaire, then the technique of self-evaluation and finally the scale of the ZTPI for measuring the temporal perspective. The information provided by the first two appear as being complementary: they give information on the elements that determine the feeling of insecurity and the overall scores on this feeling.
The characterization questionnaire identifies the main perceived sources of insecurity. It allows, according to Flament (1994), to verify the hypothesis of the investigation's themes collective hierarchization. Out of a set of 20 possible sources of insecurity presented, the individual is asked to choose the "five that pose the greatest threat to him". In other words, it must mention the elements that best reflect the perceived insecurity in Abidjan. The elements of this characterization questionnaire cover all aspects of political, social, economic and environmental life. The level of the national policy is constituted by the executive powers (2 items, for example "public services' functioning"), judiciary (1 item), and legislative (1 item). On the one hand, the level of social relations is composed of partial groupings of family (1 item: "family divisions"), kinship groups (2 items) and voluntary associations (1 item), and on the other hand, (2 items, for example "family education"), at work (1 item) and in society (1 item). The economy is described by the primary (1 item), secondary (2 items) and tertiary (1 item) sectors. Finally the environment is taken into account by four items, for example "climate change", "pollution (insalubrity, poisoning, ...)". We can notice a balance of items in the five aspects of the state's life, each of which is represented by four items. This instrument thus comprises a total of 20 sources of insecurity covering all aspects of social life.
The technique of self-evaluation has served to appreciate the feeling of insecurity experienced by the individual. This technique "consists in asking the subject himself to evaluate the degree of his opinion or attitude ... consists in presenting to the subject a graduated rule by asking him to position himself on this rule going from an extreme position to the other. (Loubet Del Bayle, 2000, 153). We then present to the individual a rule consisting of 10 squares ranging from -5 (highest level of insecurity) to +5 (highest level of security). He must then check the box corresponding to the level of insecurity that he currently lives.
The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scale developed by Zimbardo & Boyd (1999), the third instrument, was needed to account for the temporal perspective. The effect of time in longitudinal studies is a constant concern that typically requires the use of processes such as control groups to eliminate the effects of this factor. In this study, it was about knowing if the differences between the before crisis and the after crisis feelings of insecurity are due to the crisis or to the simple effect of time. The ZTPI scale has the advantage of providing a measure of the temporal perspective in its past, present and future dimensions. Some items measure the past perspective (for instance: "Thinking about my past gives me pleasure"), other items measure the present perspective (for instance, "My ideal would be to live every day as if it was the last "), other items again measure the future (for example:" I make my projects complete in time, progressing step by step "). The scale is made up of 56 items and has 5 levels of responses evolving from 1 (this proposal does not apply to me at all) to 5 (this proposal applies entirely to me).
The procedure for validating the entire questionnaire was carried out in three main stages: -translation of the ZTPI scale into French by a specialist in the English language, then the translation of this French version in English by another specialist of the English language. This last version in English is then compared to the original version of Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) in order to observe the fidelity of the translation and the clarity of the formulation of the items; -pre-test of the entire questionnaire with 15 individuals with the characteristics required to be included in the study sample, in order to test the understanding of the items, the operationality of the order and the overall assessment of the 'instrument. The duration of the questionnaire is between 15 and 20 minutes; -Statistical analyzes (factorial analysis in main components, confirmatory factor analysis) of the ZTPI scale for validation. The test-retest correlation indices range from 0.66 to 0.79 while the Crombach alpha coefficient is 0.71. This procedure allows us to conclude that each subscale of the translated version has valid fidelity.
To standardize the way the questionnaire was administered, we only interviewed people who read and write sufficiently to complete it on their own. The questionnaire was administered in 2 different periods to examine the impact of the political-military conflict on the population's feeling of insecurity. The administrations were direct and took place in the homes of the persons selected for the sample. Those ones fill in the questionnaires in our presence because we had to be sure it was filled by those people themselves and not by others or in collaboration with other persons. The counting of the questionnaires thus completed makes it possible to obtain data, ready to be analyzed, from the first survey's 354 persons and the second survey's 93 persons.

RESULTS
All the information obtained from the application of the questionnaire was analyzed in order to test the hypothesis of the study. The analysis procedure was as follows: the information obtained from the characterization questionnaire is processed using the frequency selection technique. Data from the autonotation technique were processed using the Wilcoxon Paired Sample Ranking Test, since those data were not normally distributed. Those provided by the ZTPI scale are analyzed using Student's statistical technique.
From the above, there are three main types of results in the study. First, the events perceived by Abidjan as being the source of insecurity; these are events that directly affect the physical or mental integrity of individuals. Secondly, data on the feeling of insecurity collected through the self-evaluation technique. Third, the share of time in the change of feeling of insecurity of the Abidjanese, collected using the ZTPI scale. The results are presented in three parts: first, the elements at the source of the feeling of insecurity, then the level of feeling and finally the temporal perspective. Table 3 summarizes the frequencies of designation of sources of insecurity in the two respective surveys. The elements perceived to be the source of the insecurity are hierarchized according to their frequency of choice by the population surveyed. The five sources of insecurity in the first survey are, respectively, "Attacks on goods and people", "Lack of solidarity between people", "Not taking into account the interests of the population", "abnormal Functioning of public services" and "Pollution". These main sources of perceived insecurity become, in the second investigation, "Attacks on property and persons", "Misconduct of the people", "Not taking into account the interest of the population", "Ineffectiveness of the judiciary" and "Pollution". Thus, the main perceived source of insecurity has not changed and remains the attacks on property and persons. What is changing, however, is the importance of the issues of "people's bad faith" and the "ineffectiveness of the judiciary" in determining feelings of insecurity. * Bold numbers represent the 5 most common sources of insecurity in each column.

Elements perceived to be the source of insecurity
While elements such as "Attacks on property and persons", "Not taking people's interest into account" and "Pollution (insalubrity, intoxication, ...)" continued in the second survey, we can however notice the existence of elements that are no longer among the five main sources of insecurity after the war. These results lead us to a double affirmation. On the one hand, society becomes more and more individualistic and the factor "Lack of solidarity among people" is no longer seen as a source of insecurity. On the other hand, the failure to perceive the element "Abnormal functioning of public services" as a source of insecurity seems to indicate a recent reduction in corruption, which had long been decried by the population.
One of the biggest changes is therefore the emergence of the elements "Ineffectiveness of the judiciary" and "Misconduct of people" as a source of insecurity after the crisis. This result makes it possible to affirm that the crisis has increased the importance of the "judiciary" and the "bad faith of the people" in the feeling of insecurity. In the light of the theory of vulnerability, we can therefore say that the human and material damage that occurred during the crisis is a normal consequence of the outbreak of the judiciary. However, each party believes he is "the angel" and sees evil in the others. It follows that everyone relies on the quality and impartiality of justice so that the "harm" he has suffered can be redressed. The ineffectiveness of justice then becomes a terrible threatening source, the anticipation of which results in a feeling of insecurity. Moreover, it is during the crisis period that the malice of the human species is truly at work, the objective being to "destroy the other" who has become an enemy. Often, the latter has a fuzzy definition and people are attacked only on the basis of suspicion. In these circumstances, all means are good to achieve its ends: constraints, various manipulations, untruths, etc. including the physical elimination of the most recalcitrant opponents. Thus, individuals have no more control over the threatening source that the latter operates in ignorance of the ethical provisions. Hence the feeling of insecurity felt by individuals.

Level of feeling of insecurity
The responses obtained using the self-reporting technique as a function of the survey period are shown on the following table: In order to make the data of the two surveys comparable, those of the second survey (after the crisis) were adjusted by the ratio 354/93. These data show a decrease in the total scores corresponding to an increase in the feeling of insecurity. The result of the statistical test is summarized in Table 5. It indicates that the differences between the before and the after crisis feelings of insecurity are significant. We can therefore reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan is more acute after the crisis than before. The situations of disorder and reign of the strongest, that the war brings about, lead to the consciousness of being permanently exposed to risk. Events in the course of the war can include killings of civilians, violations of the rights to life, summary executions, violations of physical integrity, tortures, enforced disappearances, violations of human rights to the circulation, forced displacement of populations, destruction or plunder of individuals' properties. The awareness of being exposed to risk will thus be coupled with a feeling of loss of control of the threat. The individual may feel vulnerable and insecure.
If there is evidence that the feeling of insecurity has changed during the crisis period, the prospect of imputing this change to the crisis would require isolating the share of time, for example, the normal evolution of the phenomenon over time. A comparative study of the feelings arising from the crisis period and those aroused by other periods -before and after the crisis -would help us meet this requirement. This is what the study of the temporal perspective addresses.

Temporal perspective
The results obtained from the ZTPI scale are summarized in Table 6. The value of Student's T is significant and overall indicates a significant difference between the data of the first survey and those of the second survey. This shows that the differences observed in this table deserve to be taken into consideration. the Past: the temporal perspective is more positive in the period before the crisis where the scores are higher in the positive past items. However, it is more negative in the second survey where scores are higher in the negative past items. This first level of change between pre and post-crisis temporal perspectives indicates that before the crisis, the past was perceived more positively, which is no longer the case after the crisis. This change leads us to think there is an impact of the crisis on the individuals' responses. So, the crisis period and the actual or potential victimization experiences that it causes create a negative feeling. -the present: the present is more hedonistic before the crisis, a period when individuals can take the liberty to take some hazards. On the other hand, the present is more fatalistic after the crisis when people are less likely to take risks. This is certainly due to the fact that the living environment is perceived as more dangerous in times of crisis and in the aftermath of the crisis. -the Future: the temporal perspective is more positive in the period before the crisis when individuals have faith in their future. The fact that this result is repeated in the second survey indicates that after the end of the war, people are once again believing in a better future. It can therefore be said that before the crisis, individuals had faith in their future, since they could not have foreseen that a war situation would disrupt the life of the nation.
Ultimately, the analysis of the temporal perspective in its various dimensions makes it possible to detect an impact of the crisis period on the feeling of insecurity. Indeed, the measure of the temporal perspective made it possible to compare the past, present and future perspectives and gave rise to the following observations: before the crisis, the past was seen as positive and the present was seen as hedonistic. However after the crisis, the individuals have had a negative image of the past, a fatalistic image of the present and a positive image of the future. This analysis allows us to affirm that the differences observed between the before and after crisis feelings of insecurity are due to the period of crisis and its upheavals in individuals' the life.
This change appears to be the result of actual or potential experiences of victimization during the crisis period. Experiences such as those lived during the political-military crisis can indeed lead people to worry about their safety. The reactions that follow are often avoidance, inappropriate interpersonal relationships, cardiovascular problems, and so on. It thus appears clearly that the question of security has a dual character: it is objective but also a lived experience. The interdependence between these two characteristics underlines their combined role in actions for development. This explains the attention carried to the subjective character in addition to the objective one in insecurity issue analysis.

DISCUSSION
In order to study the impact of the political-military crisis on the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan, we measured the feeling of insecurity, as well as the elements at its source, in the before and after crisis periods. The results indicate an increase in the feeling of insecurity due to the political-military crisis. Moreover, two phenomena concerning the sources of perceived insecurity have become particularly important because of their reactivation with the crisis: it is the "bad faith of the people" and the "inefficiency of the judiciary". This indicates that the period of unrest and difficulty has led the country into advanced corruption and has increased the need for the judicial system to be effective in the eyes of the individuals. These results lead to us to understand the strategies of ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) that focus on growth and poverty reduction (Ecowas Report, 2006). In view of our results, we can argue with Yaye (2013) that neither sustainable growth nor the well-being of individuals can be divested of an effective judicial system.
The most feared source of insecurity is the "Attacks on goods and people" and this reality remains unchanged despite the crisis. As a result of the war, it is well known that acts of aggression have harmed the population (Kouassi, 2012) and have had an impact on physical and mental health (Kouadio et al., 2012;Bah, 2009, Rosay-Notz, 2006. The fact that these "attacks against property and persons" are perceived as the main source of insecurity teaches us that these acts of physical violence have always existed and affect all categories of persons. Armed conflicts are in the forefront of the concerns of the population especially when they have been of an extremely pernicious violence. The resolution of these conflicts necessitated the participation of individual or associative volunteers for the establishment of a healthy living environment (Charny, 2005, Aning, Birikorang, Jaye, 2010, Wanep, 2011. Despite these supports, including UN peacekeeping operations, such internal conflicts deserve to be taken more seriously because they put a hazard to both national and regional security, since they often involve bord ering States. The "Not Considering Population Interest" factor is among the top five sources of perceived insecurity and this reality remains unchanged despite the crisis. This suggests that the population feels abandoned by its leaders. However this factor, which takes into account the interest of the population, is inescapable with population growth and the economic crisis (Zanou, 1991), especially in a situation where communication is broken between the citizens of the country (Afisi, 2009). At this level, economic growth and poverty reduction seem also necessary (Ecowas report, 2009;Undp, 2012) if we envisage to take into account the population's interest.
Two basic observations emerge from these results. First, not all sources of insecurity are equally important for the individuals. Some, as stated by Duprez&Hedli (1992) and Rosay-Notz (2006), are very characteristic of insecurity, while others are very characteristic of insecurity. This difference in perception is related to the events of the physical and social environment (Bouchard et al., 2003;Kouadio et al., 2012). Thus, factors of insecurity are activated because of their frequency of occurrence in the daily lives of individuals while others, no less important, are because of their rarity, put low in the minds of individuals. Consequently, the fact that certain phenomena do not directly threaten the lives of individuals is an explanation for the low frequency of their choice. However "attacks on goods and people", which have high frequencies of choice, appear to be phenomena of which populations are often victims (Kouassi, 2012). This result is maintained at the second survey. Another element perceived by individuals as the source of their insecurity is the "bad faith of the people". The political context in which this survey was carried out seems to explain it: a context in which the specter of a social fracturing is reinforced by a particularly acute economic and political crisis (Brown, 1996, Zanou, 1991. Second, concern about feelings of insecurity may, according to the work of Kubzansky et al. (1997), lead individuals to an avoidant coping and a maladaptive interpersonal relationships, as well as a high degree of cardiovascular problems (Kouadio et al., 2012). These observations lead us to agree with Aning& Bah (2009) that feelings of insecurity can be a double-edged sword: when unresolved and of high intensity, it can affect physical or mental health. However, when moderate, it can constitute an alert and benefit the welfare establishment.

CONCLUSION
In the aftermath of the post-election crisis, one of the major challenges facing Ivorian society is to establish security and reassure the individuals so that they can provide their full potential for their activities to the service of the development. In this context, the present study aims to examine the impact of the post-election crisis on the population's feeling of insecurity.
To this end, two pre and post-crisis surveys made it possible to answer the question of the impact of the crisis on the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan. The purpose of the second survey was to re-examine the individuals composing the sample of the first survey, using the same instrument: a multidimensional questionnaire comprising the technique of self-evaluation, a characterization questionnaire and a ZTPI scale for measuring the temporal perspective. The results show a significant increase in the feeling of insecurity after the crisis and an emergence of the elements "Bad faith of the people" and "Inefficiency of the judiciary" among the main sources of the feeling of insecurity.
As could be feared, the crisis situation has led to an increase in the feeling of insecurity in Abidjan. According to the results of the present study, the prospect of reducing this feeling of insecurity should, as a matter of priority, be to resolve the following problems: "Attacks on goods and people", "People's bad faith", "Not taken into account the ineffectiveness of the judiciary" and "Pollution (insalubrity, intoxication, ...)".
Moreover, the results open up interesting perspectives concerning the phenomenon of insecurity. Particularly, it would be interesting to find out how this feeling of insecurity evolves after the crisis over a long period. Is it stabilizing or is it tending to decline over time to return to its pre-political-military crisis?