The Pragmatic Economy of Translation: Rendering Technical Vocabulary in the Polish Translation of Tiger Woods’ Biography

Translating the biography of the world’s most famous golfer, Tiger Woods by Jeff Benedict and Armen Keteyian (2018a) into Polish, I made an assumption that the ability to understand the technical vocabulary of golf among the readers of the original would differ from that among the readers of the translated text. This assumption was based on the fact that golf is considerably more popular among the English-speaking nations than in Poland and that most of its jargon is based on English-language vocabulary. Therefore, the golf vocabulary was made more accessible to the Polish reader, following the precepts of the Nidian dynamic equivalence. Two methods for achieving this have been attempted: explaining the meanings of technical golfing terms within the body of the text, which corresponds to the notion of explicitation in translation; or replacing them with more common expressions in order to produce the acculturating effect. Both methods helped increase the readability of the text, but their limitations had to be taken into account. Employing explicitation could result in producing stylistically awkward sentences, and some explanations within the body of the text lacked necessary precision. Acculturation was not always possible, since in some cases the use of words conceived as equivalents of specialist terms could either mislead a lay reader or result in a negative response among readers familiar with the golf jargon. With these limitations in mind, a glossary of terminology of golf has been added to the translated text.


INTRODUCTION
Tiger Woods by Jeff Benedict and Armen Keteyian (2018a), which I translated into Polish shortly after its publication in the USA, is a biography of the world's most famous golfer and one of the most prominent athletes of our times, a universally recognized celebrity whose private life absorbs some people no less than his awe-inspiring skill at playing golf.
Such a text may be aimed at two types of target readers: a golf enthusiast, who wants to learn about the details of the top achievements of the discipline s/he plays or likes to watch, and a person who is interested in the life of an icon of the contemporary world, not necessarily caring about the intricacies of the sport this superstar excels in. While a representative of the former type will be familiar with mostif not alltechnical terms used to describe the game of golf, the latter may find some or most of them difficult to comprehend.
In the initial stage of work on translating the English language source text (ST) into Polish, I made an assumption that the ability to understand the technical vocabulary of golf among the target readers of the ST would differ from that among the readers of the target text (TT). With this assumption in mind, I have tried to make the golf vocabulary more accessible to the Polish reader, relying on the Nidian dynamic equivalence. As Nida (1964, 167) claims, "the conformance of a translation to the receptor language and culture as a whole is an essential ingredient in any stylistically acceptable rendering". Therefore, I have decided to make the golf-oriented peculiarities of the original text less conspicuous for the reader in the Polish language.

THE LANGUAGE OF GOLF IN POLAND AND IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES
According to the statistics published in Golf Around the World 2019 (13), Poland has 47 golf courses. Among the countries of the same region, the Czech Republic, with a population slightly higher than a quarter of that of its northern neighbor, can boast 132 golf courses. This figure dwarfs in comparison with the numbers of golf courses in European English-speaking countries: 186 in Wales, 494 in Ireland, 614 in Scotland (the birthplace of this game), and 2,270 in England. However, the numbers are even more impressive in the case of the English-speaking countries in North America: there are 2,633 golf courses in Canada, and 16,752 in the USA. Overall, North America accounts for 51 percent of golf supply worldwide, with Spanish-speaking countries of this region possessing only a tiny fraction of this continent's golf facilities (R&A 2019, 15). In 2016, there were 4,705 registered golfers in Poland, which means that only 0.01% of the country's entire population were affiliated with golf clubs or associations. By contrast, all English-speaking European countries had participation rates of well above 1 percent in the same year. England, whose 694,623 registered golfers constituted 1.27 percent of its entire population, topped the list of European countries in terms of the total number of people officially involved in playing golf. Naturally, the figures for the total numbers of registered golfers in the less populous English-speaking nations had to be lower: there were 44,422 members of golf clubs and associations in Wales,190,883 in Ireland,and 192,533 in Scotland. However, the participation rates in those smaller countries were even more impressive than in England, amounting to 1.47 percent respectively, 4.01 percent, and 3.56 percent (KPMG's Golf Advisory Practice 2017, 10). While due to different methodologies used in the analyzed sources, the popularity of golf in European countries cannot be directly compared to that in the USA, the available data suggest that the latter has an even higher percentage of golf enthusiasts than English-speaking European countries. In 2015, 24,130,000 Americans played this game on a golf course at least once (National Golf Foundation 2016), 12.7 million Americans played at least eight rounds of golf within a twelve-month period [p. 4], and "an estimated 81 million, including 62 million non-golfers watched golf on TV." (National Golf Foundation 2016) All in all, about 95 million (almost one out of three) US citizens either played golf, watched it on TV or read about it in that year (National Golf Foundation 2016). Therefore, it may be expected that the percentage of those readers of the original who have at least some knowledge of the game of golf will be much higher than the percentage of readers of the Polish translation familiar with this game, which in turn will make the elements of golf jargon used in the text easier to understand to the readers of the source text, than they would be to the readers of the target text if the principles of formal equivalence were to be strictly followed. At the same time, although golf fans and players were not expected to be the most numerous group of the TT readers, nonetheless they would certainly feature prominently among them, and their opinion on the text could play an important role in promoting the book by Jeff Benedict and Armen Keteyian. Therefore, it was important not to alienate Polish readers interested in playing and/or watching the game of golf through a total rejection of their jargon and its replacement with expressions which, from their perspective might look "naïve" or "artificial." Like any jargon, golf terminology contains words and expressions which will not be easily understood outside its context. However, as almost all this vocabulary is of English origin, even those speakers of English who are unfamiliar with the game of golf will be able to deduce most meanings. By contrast, in the Polish language, these imported terms exist only within the context of golf. Readers of the translated text who are unfamiliar with the jargon of this game cannot rely on their everyday vocabulary to try to decipher the meanings of unknown terms. For example, in general English the word "swing" denotes a curving movement, which can be easily associated with the movement of a golf club made in order to hit the ball, but its only Polish meaning outside the world of golf is the type of music popular in the 1930s and 1940s. Similarly, the terms denoting the elements of a golf swing, such as backswing, downswing, and follow-through, can be intuitively understood by a person with a good command of general English who is not necessarily interested in the game of golf.
Admittedly, Some Polish-based terms are used interchangeably with the Englishbased terms by Polish golfers or are at least approved by them. Swing can be rendered as "zamach" [lit.: swing]; other examples include "strzelnica" [lit.: shooting range] for "driving range"; "główny trener" [lit.: main coach] for "head pro"; "instruktor" [lit.: instructor] for "assistant pro", and "kołeczek" [lit.: stake] for "tee." Some Polish based terms exist which are used exclusively instead of the original English-based terms: the equivalent of "ball" is invariably "piłka" [lit.: ball], a "club" is "kij" [lit.: stick/club], a "golf course" is "pole golfowe", and a "hole" is "dołek" [lit.: hole/hollow]. However, even words in this category pose certain problems to the Polish translator. Intuitively, the diminutive "piłeczka" [lt.: little ball] would be treated as the correct word to denote the relatively small round object used in golf; similarly "chorągiewka" [lit.: little flag] instead of "flaga" [lit.: flag] may be incorrectly chosen as a substitute for a "flag" which, rather than being a national symbol, marks a humble hole on a golf course. The Polish "pole golfowe" [lit.: golf field] does not reflect the nature of a golf course, on which the players progress from the first hole to the last one, following a linear pattern rather than roaming across or around it. The Polish term "dołek" has to double as the equivalent of "cup", and in the translation analyzed in this article, either "dołek" or "flaga" are used to denote "pin", depending on whether the narrator treats it as a distance marker or the final point in a given part of the course.
More importantly, many other words, including "backswing", "downswing", and "follow-through" are never translated and must be used as foreign or loan words. Even more worryingly for the Polish translator, some words used by English or American golfers have to be replaced with more popular English language terms, as these lesser known ones have not been borrowed into the Polish language, and those terms which indeed were borrowed could not evolve as they would in their natural English-language environment. Thus "practice range" had to be replaced with "driving range" (although the more colloquial "strzelnica" substitutes both terms in direct quotes and dialogues). Similarly, the place where the golfer can "drop" a new ball when retrieving the old one has proved impossible is called "drop zone" in the translation, rather than the "drop circle" preferred by the authors of the original. (Interestingly, "drop zone" does appear in the ST, but it does so only to denote a landing place for military parachutists. However, in this context, a Polish substitute, "strefa zrzutu" [lit.: drop zone], could be used.).

EMPLOYED METHODS
The simplest way of facilitating understanding of the jargon of golf in the translation would be by providing explanations outside the main body of the text, either in the form of footnotes or a glossary. The problem of this approach would be the creation of a text much less readable than the source text. While Benedict and Keteyian's biography of Tiger Woods is very well documented, the main body of the text does not even feature references to the Notes containing bibliographic information and identifying the sources of presented quotes and data, which appear on the final pages of the book. In other words, the original is intentionally devoid of any features which could impede the smooth process of reading. Unlike the original, the Polish translation does contain these references, following trends preferred by Polish publishers. However, introducing explanations of technical terms in the form of footnotes would largely increase the number of references added to the translated book. Another extra-textual solutiona glossarydoes not graphically interrupt the text, but using it forces the reader to stop reading in order to look up unknown entries. As the reader of the source text does not have to do this, the functional equivalence between the ST and the TT will not be fully reached if the reader of the target text were to rely solely on this solution.
In these circumstances, it seemed reasonable to me that formal equivalence of the translation should be sacrificed in order to achieve a higher readability. Two methods for achieving this were attempted: explaining the meanings of technical golfing terms within the body of the text, which might resemble explicitation (King Lee 2018, 41) or replacing them with simpler expressions which normally would not be used by golfers, which might be referred to as acculturation (King Lee 2018,39). Both methods are employed in order to produce a successful communicative translation on Paul Newmarks' scale of translation as a dynamic repertoire (King Lee 2018, 44).
Explanations within the text violate the principle of formal equivalence by adding fragments of the text without any equivalents in the original. Yet, they help preserve what Newmark calls the "pragmatic economy of the text," recreating the naturalness of the reader's understanding of the original message (quoted after King Lee 2018, 44; Figure  1).
Figure 1. This diagram shows different translation methods as a spectrum with word-for-word translation and adaptation at its two extremes. Both explication and acculturation serve to produce successful communicative translation (King Lee 2018, 44).
The following comparison of a fragment of the ST and its translation illustrates the difference in length of the corresponding passages resulting from the application of this method. This is a description of Tiger's first participation in a national junior tournament: He easily made the cut, and on the third day, when the juniors were paired with PGA Tour pros, he found himself playing with twenty-three-year-old John Daly, a rough-and-tumble young gun known for being the longest hitter on the Tour. (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 40) The above excerpt is rendered into Polish as follows: Z łatwością przeszedł cuta, czyli próg uprawniający do gry w rundach finałowych. Trzeciego dnia, gdy juniorów zestawiono z zawodowcami grającymi w cyklu PGA, miał zmierzyć się z Johnem Dalym, zadziornym, śmiało sięgającym po laury dwudziestotrzylatkiem, który słynął z najdalszych uderzeń wśród wszystkich zawodników cyklu [lit.: He easily made the cut, or the threshold enabling one to play in the final rounds. On the third day, when the juniors were paired with professionals playing on the PGA Tour, he was about to play with John Daly, a pugnacious twentythree-year-old eager for victories, who was known for having the longest hit on the Tour.] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 57) Since the number of golfing particulars in the translated passage has significantly increased, and translating them directly would produce an exceedingly lengthy sentence, I have decided to render the original's message in two shorter sentences, in order to preserve the text's readability.
However, despite the increased length of the translated passage, the precision of the explanations included in the main body of the text remains limited. Technically speaking, there is only one final round in a golf tournament, and "making the cut" denotes qualifying for the latter two of the four rounds in a four-round tournament. The phrase "w rundach finałowych" [lit.: in the final rounds] in the explanatory passage does not conform with this technical meaning of the term "final round." However expanding the passage further in order to include a more accurate definition of "the cut" would not only disturb the balance between the ST and TT, but it would also reduce the readability of the latter. Therefore, in spite of the explicitation, which extended the main body of the text, providing additional explanations in the form of a glossary seemed necessary.
Nonetheless, in translating the biography I had an impression that maintaining a maximum concision of the explanatory remarks did not always have to be treated as a priority. The following fragment describes a sports journalist's attempts at playing golf with Tiger Woods at the time when the superstar-to-be was only two years old: "Hill sliced his first drive. He hooked his second one" (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 22).
Initially, I translated it as follows: Pierwsza piłka uciekła [Hillowi] na prawo w slajsie. Druga skręciła w lewo hookiem." [lit.: The first ball escaped to the right in a slice. The second one turned left in a hook.] Since both "slice" and "hook" are used as verbs, and their Polish equivalents "slajs" and "hook" can only be used as nouns, the addition of Polish verbs "uciekła" (lit.: escaped/moved in an unintended direction) and "skręciła" (lit.: turned) worked both for inserting these words into the syntactic structure of a Polish sentence, and for explaining their meanings, which indicate the curving of a ball's trajectory (in the depicted case away from its intended target). The addition of "na prawo" [lit.: to the right] and "w lewo" [lit.: to the left] showed the direction of the curving of the shot executed by a righthanded golfer. However, in the course of consultation with a professional golfer -Oskar Zaborowski -I discovered that a "hook" is a very significant curving of the shot. Therefore, a more detailed explanation of the meaning of this term was necessary. As a result, the translation with markedly longer explanatory parts had to be produced: Pierwsza piłka uciekła mu slajsem, czyli w prawo. Przy drugiej zagrał hooka, co oznacza, że skręciła ona mocno w lewo. [lit.: The first ball escaped in a slice, which means to the right. He hooked the second one, which means it turned strongly to the left."] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 37) In addition to providing a more accurate explanation of "hook", this variant is clearer than the previous version, in which "w slajsie" [lit.: in a slice] and "hookiem" [lit.: in a hook] could be read as terms unrelated to the direction of the movement of the ball, and because of this it was chosen as the final variant of the translation.
The same term appears later in the biography, when an unlucky shot jeopardizes Tiger's chance of winning an important tournament: "Then he hooked his tee shot into Caramel Bay" (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 205). I translate it as follows: A potem zepsuł wybicie. Jego hook poniósł piłkę mocno w lewo, wprost do Zatoki Carmel." [lit.: And then he spoiled his tee shot. His hook took the ball sharply to the left, right into Caramel Bay.] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 240) Since a lay reader may have forgotten the meaning of "hook" by this stage, a sentence is added at the beginning to make it clear that "hooking" was not what the golfer wanted. Rather than containing this information in an explanatory clause to a longer sentence, it was formed into a shorter, separate sentence so that the dramatic style of the original text was maintained. The latter sentence (the one which could be back translated as "his hook took the ball sharply to the left") places "hook" in the position of a noun followed by a verb describing its action, which was expected to present the situation with sufficient clarity.
The inability to come up with the verb form of the Polish equivalent of "slice" leads to omitting it altogether in another fragment of the text, which describes Tiger's performance in the 2013 Masters tournament: After slicing his drive into the trees and punching his way out with a shot that left his ball eighty-five yards from the hole, Tiger used a wedge to attack the pin (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 369) I translate the excerpt as follows: Po wybiciu, które zeszło mocno na prawo, między drzewa, i wydostaniu się stamtąd uderzeniem, po którym piłka wylądowała 78 metrów od dołka, Tiger użył wedge'a, aby zaatakować flagę [lit.: After the drive, which strayed strongly to the right, into the trees, and getting out of there by means of a shot after which the ball landed 78 meters from the hole, Tiger used a wedge to attack the flag] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 426) The sentence in my translation is packed with golf terminology. Even though all the English-language terms other than "sliced" and "wedge" have Polish equivalents which could be easily understood also by those readers who are not golf enthusiasts (drivewybicie [lit.: stroke], shotuderzenie [lit.: stroke, strike], holedołek [lit.: little hole]), the sentence belongs to a longer passage describing a match, and consequently containing numerous further examples of golf jargon. That is why I felt that the omission of this specialist term in this place would improve the readability of this passage without sacrificing the aesthetics of a sports commentary.
As this example illustrates, using the method of omitting a specialist term often does not necessarily result in expansion of the TT. The translated sentence quoted above actually contains fewer words (28) than the original (32), even though it has a higher overall number of letters (The original sentence has 133 letters, while its translation contains 153). This approach may also work as a convenient domestication technique, since with its application the imported termsclumsily fitting the rules of the TL syntaxdo not have to appear in the translated text.
In the following quote of Tiger Woods' own explanation of his performance during a tournament, there are two technical terms: I didn't make bogeys due to bad ball striking. I just couldn't make my putts (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 92).
In spoken Polish language both "bogey" and "putt" are used by golfers as loanwords which do follow Polish inflection patterns, but they retain their English spellings, resulting in the lack of the letter-sound correspondence typical of the Polish language. I domesticated my translation of this passage by avoiding these terms: Nie traciłem punktów z powodu złych uderzeń. Po prostu piłki nie chciały mi wpadać do dołków [lit.: I didn't lose any points due to bad striking. The ball just wouldn't get into the holes.] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 114).
A "bogey" happens when the ball reaches the hole in one shot over par. Rather than losing points, a golfer gets "penalty points" for reaching the hole in a higher number of shots than prescribed (and has more "penalty points" taken away if he manages to do it in a lower number of shots). However, "losing points" will be instinctively understood by a reader as a failure to reach the desired result, in the same fashion as "losing seconds" by a racer indicates that s/he has finished the race in more, rather than fewer seconds than his/her competitors. Another term missing in the TT is "putt", a gentle hit causing the ball to roll on the green, which is substantially different from the violent "drive." By omitting this term, the Polish translation risks distorting the meaning of Woods' words. Yet, unless they happen to hit an exceptionally lucky drive, golfers will normally putt in the closing stage of playing a hole to finally land the ball inside. That is why replacing "I couldn't make my putts" with "the ball wouldn't get into the holes" retains the reference to the same phase of the game, in which a golfer must resort to the same technique of hitting the ball.
Although my translation based on pragmatic economy has the advantages of allowing higher readability without necessarily sacrificing concision, its use is limited. It seemed reasonable to replace at least some of the recurring technical terms with non-technical Polish language words or phrases denoting their meanings. However, while omission of specialist terminology was possible and proved successful in individual cases, as illustrated by the example above, I had to abandon attempts at entirely substituting any such vocabulary item with non-specialist words or phrases.
Initially, it seemed that "putt" could be replaced by a simple description of this type of shot. However, such attempts as "toczenie po ziemi" [lit.: rolling [the ball] on the ground] were rejected by the consultant golfers as sounding unnatural. What is more, using those descriptive phrases sometimes resulted in awkward sentences which usually had to be longer than the original. Nonetheless, since the translation is intended to be read not only by non-experts but also by people interested in golf, I have decided not to use some non-specialist words and phrases, even though they did not produce any stylistic problems. The use of "drzewce" [lit.: shaft, pole] to denote "shaft" did not work very well partly due to the fact that this word is not commonly used in modern Polish and for readers who are unfamiliar with golf it may be as alien as the loaned "szaft" preferred by golfers. "Uchwyt" [lit.: handgrip, handle] instead of the loaned "grip" would be understood by most readers, but since "grip" is also used in Polish terminologies of other sports, such as cycling, I felt that using the more technical of the two should not significantly impair readability. In the case of "pro shop", translating it as "sklep klubowy" [lit.: club shop] produced a phrase which despite its translation remained unclear to the Polish reader who has never been to this kind of establishmentthe translation does not explain what happens there. Instead, I used the original term with a Polish explanation -"pro shop (klubowy sklep ze sprzętem golfowym)" [lit.: pro shop (a club shop with golfing equipment)]. Another example of retaining the loanword instead of coming up with its Polish equivalent is "wood." Although Polish-language terms "drewno" [wood, timber] or "kij typu drewno" [wood-type club] can be found in some reference materials (Corbeil and Archambault 1999, 677), they are generally avoided by Polish golfers. More importantly, because as early as 1920s "woods" began to be manufactured from materials other than wood (initially steel, now carbon-fibers), the literal translation would mislead the lay reader.
Perhaps the most conspicuous case demonstrating an inability to find a Polishlanguage replacement for an English-based term was "caddie." Because of its vowel ending, this word is uninflected in Polish, and as such fits in rather clumsily in the syntactic structures of the Polish language. I considered rendering it as "nosiciel kijów" [lit.: club carrier], but this phrase does not reflect the function of a caddie, whoapart from doing the manual labor usually associated with his position also advises his/her golfer, performing a role akin to that of a navigator in a rally car. Even though the source text itself often refers to a caddie as somebody who carries a golfer's equipment (more specifically, the bag containing it), this usually happens to avoid repetition. Besides, the expression "to be on the bag" is commonly used in the English jargon of golf. Quite contrarily, the term "nosiciel kijów" would mislead a lay reader as to the real role of a caddie, and irritate a golf enthusiast.
On the other hand, even when a given technical term could be conveniently deleted from the target text, it was nonetheless used if its appearance would not compromise readability. The following excerpt quotes a fragment from an oral description of a golf course given to Tiger by a local club pro in order to familiarize him with the place. Translating it, I extracted the term "break" from its original place, and I decided to use it later, which helped clarify its meaning through the context of the previous sentence: [The greens on this course] don't break the way they look,' he explained. 'There's no way you can read them correctly the first time (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 96). Since the sentence containing the term "break" is rendered in direct speech, adding any explanation would make it sound unnatural. However, by replacing the phrase "They don't break the way they look" with a phrase which could be back-translated as "[here], the ball doesn't roll the way you'd expect", the TT informs the reader about the nature of the problem discussed in this fragment. The specialist term appears in the next sentence to retain the technical register of the original, and perhaps to inform the reader about its existence in Polish golfing jargon. At the same time, it does not form a stumbling block of sophisticated vocabulary which would force the reader to stop and look up an unfamiliar word.
However, in spite of this introduction of the term, roughly 200 pages later, when the ball hit by Tiger in a tournament starts to roll into a water hazard instead of the hole, "bad break" is replaced by an explanatory phrase "niesprzyjające nachylenie greenu" [lit.: unfavorable incline of the green] Keteyian 2018a, 369, Benedict andKeteyian 2018b, 426). A lay reader would be likely to have forgotten the term by this stage, and the passage, not being a fragment of a dialogue, can retain good readability despite gaining added length.
In another fragment of the translation, a loanword "loft" is introduced, although it does not appear in the original. The fragment describes the situation during the US Open, in which Tiger's caddie gives him a crucial piece of advice on his choice of club: Woods wanted to hit a fifty-six-degree sand wedge. But given the lie and Tiger's pumped-up demeanor, Williams argued for a full sixty-degree wedge (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 295).
With the use of the universally understood unit of measurement of an angle, the technical term in the latter sentence ought to be understood without any further explanations: Woods chciał użyć sand wedge'a o kącie nachylenia 56 stopni. Jednak biorąc pod uwagę ukształtowanie terenu oraz to, jak napalony był Tiger, Williams nalegał, by uderzał regularnym wedgem o lofcie 60 stopni [lit.: Woods wanted to use a sand wedge with the rake angle of 56 degrees. However, considering the lie of the land and how pumped-up Tiger was, Williams insisted that he used the regular wedge with the loft of 60 degrees] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 341).
At the same time, the introduction of the loanword "loft" enables avoiding repetition of the expression "kąt nachylenia" and retaining the technical register of the ST.
In some situations, leaving golf terminology without any explanations or reorganizing their context would not impede the understanding of the translation, or at least would not automatically make the reception of the translation more difficult than that of the original. The following fragment, describing Tiger's new swing coach's reaction to the first interview with his trainee, contains three terms which even some golf fans may be unfamiliar with: Harmon realized, Tiger didn't have one particular shot that he relied on when he really needed to place his ball in a specific locationno three-quarter shots, no knock-down shots, no punch shots: just power (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 61) In my translation, I decided to leave the entire trio without any explanatory addition: Harmon zdał sobie sprawę, że Tiger po prostu nie miał jednego ulubionego uderzenia, na którym polegał, kiedy naprawdę musiał umieścić piłkę w konkretnym miejscużadnego zamachu na trzy czwarte, knockdownu, punch shotu: niczego prócz siły [lit.: Harmon realized that Tiger didn't have one favorite shot that he relied on when he really needed to place his ball in a specific locationno three-quarter shot, no knockdown shot, no punch shot: nothing but power] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 82) On the one hand, the context in the ST makes it clear that the specialist words (threequarter shot, knock-down shot, punch shot) denote types of shots. On the other, since the types of shots mentioned are ones even Tiger Woods himself used to be unfamiliar with (admittedly at an early stage of his career) one may safely assume that an average reader of the original would be equally uninformed about their precise characteristics as are most readers of the Polish translation.
However, although on some occasions the context of the original provides enough information to leave the technical terms unexplained, elsewhere added explanations were necessary even when no technical, English-language based terminology was used in the translation. The following is a fragment of a longer passage listing Tiger's achievements in a succession beginning with the least and ending with the most impressive: [What mattered to Tiger] was the first time he broke 40, the first time he broke 80 (Benedict and Keteyian 2018a, 66).
Yet, in golf the lower, not the higher score indicates a better result. For a golfer the logic of the quoted passage may seem obvious, but a lay reader who only learnt the rudimentary rules of golf when s/he began reading the book, may find this passage poorly organized. However, since it is a direct quote of Butch Harmon, Woods' swing coach, its original recipient was a person familiar with the game, who would know that a golf rookie will "break 40" on nine holes, while "80" will be broken on a full-length course of 18 holes. As the translation is intended also for readers who are not familiar with the game, I decided to include this additional information: Chodziło o to, kiedy po raz pierwszy przełamał czterdzieści uderzeń na dziewięciu dołkach, kiedy przełamał osiemdziesiąt na osiemnastu [lit.: Whatmattered was when he first broke 40 strikes on nine holes, when he first broke 80 on eighteen] (Benedict and Keteyian 2018b, 87).

RECEPTION OF THE TRANSLATED TEXT
Apart from publisher's reviews and an interview with Oskar Zaborowski, who participated in the production of the TT as the consultant on golf terminology, its only review published so far has been "Najlepsza biografia 2018 roku?" published on January 3, 2019 by Krzysztof Baranowski. As the title suggests, the review is quite positive. The author does state that the "great number of pars, tees, greens, bogeys and fairways may be confusing" but concedes that "it would have been impossible to approach the subject matter differently."[my own translation]. From the translator's perspective, this description can be seen as only a partial success -the reader understands the translator's choices but still finds parts of the text difficult to read. Later however, the book is described not only as very informative, but also as "very well written." Since the reviewer describes the TT he has read, rather than the ST, it may be assumed that the techniques aimed at increasing readability without compromising the "technical" style of the ST have proven to be successful.

CONCLUSIONS
In the course of translating a biography containing numerous technical terms, I came to the conclusion that no single method of rendering the technical terminology in the TT would adequately address the two types of target readers of this text. While I assumed that an average reader of the TT would find the specialist terminology more difficult to understand that an average reader of the ST, I also discovered that the specialists would not react positively to excessive simplification of their jargon. Therefore, a combination of methods, comprising clarifications of the specialist terms within the text (either through a direct explanation or manipulation of the context), omitting those terms, and providing their definitions in a glossary was used. While the feedback received so far (a relatively positive review of the text) it is too limited to judge the successfulness of this approach, it is nonetheless assumed that given the diverse character of the intended readers of the TT, it was probably the best method for achieving the dynamic equivalence between the ST and the TT.