The disappearance of cultural landscapes: the case of wooded-meadows in the Ligurian Apennines (NW Italy)

The “wooded-meadows system” is a multifunctional use of vegetation resources widespread in Europe since the Neolithic, and well documented in the Ligurian Apennines (NW Italy) between the Middle Ages and the first half of the 19th century. The management of wooded-meadows included: collection of fallen and dead branches in spring, later used for fuel; mowing and grazing in summer; collection of secondary products; making sheaves from branches in autumn, later used as cattle and sheep fodder; coppicing, pollarding and cutting of trees in winter. Three sites located in eastern Ligurian Apennines were studied by means of an interdisciplinary approach in order to better understand the impact and the consequences of this historical landuse practice on vegetation structure and composition. In particular, based on specific features of palynological diagrams, it was possible to conclude that (compared to the post-cultural phase) when the wooded-meadows system was in use, all the sites were characterized by: (1) lower pollen percentages of trees; (2) higher pollen percentages of shrubs and herbs; (3) higher percentages of anthropogenic pollen indicators; (4) higher values of palynological richness. This research also represents a contribution to issues of nature-conservation policy for the preservation of cultural landscapes. IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 157–167 Chiara Molinari, Carlo Montanari: The disappearance of cultural landscapes: the case of wooded-meadows in the Ligurian Apennines (NW Italy)


Introduction
The management system commonly known as "woodedmeadows" consists of a multifunctional use of vegetation resources that has been widespread in Europe (particularly in the region around the Baltic Sea, and in the mountains of central and southern Europe) since the Neolithic (Sigaut, 1982;Rasmussen, 1990;Maggi, Nisbet, 2000). Woodedmeadows are generally defined as meadows with trees, or a combination of trees, grassland and tall-herb vegetation. Trees typically cover 10-50% of the ground, while 80-90% can be mowed (Kull et al., 2003). Wooded-meadows were originally managed with a series of cyclical tasks ( Figure 1) including: (a) the collection of fallen and dead branches in spring, later used for fuel; (b) mowing and grazing during summer; (c) the collection of secondary products (e.g. berries, mushrooms, medicinal herbs, etc.) in autumn; (d) making sheaves from branches and twigs (after hay-making), later dried and used for cattle and sheep fodder in winter; (e) coppicing, pollarding and cutting of trees in winter (Moreno, Raggio, 1990;Read, 2000;Grove, Rackham, 2001). The outcome of such an extensive form of land-use was a highly productive system providing wood, grass, leaf-hay and fruits, with a consequent maintenance of fertility and increase of species diversity (Kukk, Kull, 1997;Peterken, 2017).
Within this context, our main aim was to better understand the main consequences of this land-use practice on vegetation structure and composition in the past. By means of an interdisciplinary approach, we studied three different sites located in eastern Ligurian Apennines (Figure 2), an area where the management of wooded-meadows was widespread between the Middle Ages and the first half of the 19 th century, but which has since disappeared (Moreno, Figures 2 and 3a. This site is located in the Trebbia Valley, eastern Ligurian Apennines. Today the site is a hay meadow, with scattered beech groves, characterised by the presence of a small pond, completely dry in summer. The grassland is rich in Poaceae (i.e. Brachypodium rupestre Hudson, Festuca pratensis L., Phleum pratense L., Avenella flexuosa (L.) Drejer) and many other herb species such as Genista tinctoria L., Asphodelus albus Mill., Hypericum perforatum L., Leucanthemum vulgare Lam., Arnica montana L., Valeriana officinalis L., Orchis mascula L. and Narcissus poeticus L. The small pond hosts species typical of temporary wet soils such as Carex vesicaria L., Carex vulpina L., Heleocharis palustris (L.) Roem. & Schult, Galium palustre L., Ranunculus repens L. and Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeuschel. UTM 32T, WGS84: 523975 E;4929041 N, 1165 m asl, Figures. 2 and 3b. This site is located on the watershed between the Trebbia and Aveto Valleys, eastern Ligurian Apennines. Currently the sampling site is a temporary pond, dry in summer, dominated by Polygonum arenastrum Boreau and Spergularia rubra (L.) C. Presl. The surrounding vegetation is characterized by Fagus sylvatica L. woodlands, with presence of Acer pseudoplatanus L., Sorbus aria (L.) Crantz, S. aucuparia L., Fraxinus ornus L., Laburnum alpinum (Miller) Berchtold et Presl, Quercus cerris L., Pyrus piraster Burgsd., Prunus avium L., Salix caprea L. In open areas, shrubs such as Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull, Genista pilosa L., Juniperus communis L., Prunus spinosa L., Crataegus monogyna Jacq., Rosa canina L., Vaccinium myrtillus L. and Cytisus scoparius (L.) are also common. Of particular interest, between the post-medieval period and the first half of the 20 th century, the area was part of an extensive network of transhumance routes. Furthermore, today the site is located inside the SIC-    . This site is located between the Trebbia and Aveto Valleys, eastern Ligurian Apennines. Today the site is a woodland with ancient pollarded beech trees, completely abandoned, with a very poor understory characterised by nitrophilous and synanthropic species (e.g. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All., Geranium robertianum L., Galeopsis tetrahit L. and Galeopsis speciosa Miller). Moreover, the presence of many centuries-old large pollarded beeches is a memory of past management practices related to the use of wooded-meadows in the area. Furthermore, the occurrence of the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm., commonly associated with the presence of ancient trees, suggests the high conservation priority of the site (Rolstad et al., 2001;Nascimbene et al., 2013). Actually Rachixìna is located inside the SIC-ZSC IT1331012 "Lago Marcotto -Roccabruna -Gifarco -Lago della Nave" and is included in the Natura 2000 network.

Historical documents
The comparison of historical topographic maps, historical aerial photos, historical photos and historical archival documents dated back to the last ca.150 years allowed the reconstruction of the most important vegetation and land-use changes at the three selected sites. This approach, based on the use of different sources, has already provided good results in the past within our research group (Cevasco, 2007;Poggi, 2013;Molinari, Montanari, 2016).

Field and laboratory methods
Each selected site was studied through biostratigraphic analyses with the aim of identifying specific palynological assemblages associated with the wooded-meadows system. While at Pian della Cavalla and Lago della Nava we cored the wetland area, at Rachixìna -due to the absence of nearby wetlands -a soil profile was sampled. Lithology and stratigraphy were recorded in the field, and soil pH (determined in H 2 O) was measured using a standard technique (Thunjai, Boyd, 2001). At Pian della Cavalla and Lago della Nava sub-samples (2 cm 3 volume) for pollen and microcharcoal analysis were extracted every 5 cm between 0 and 30 cm, and every 10 cm between 30 and 50 cm. At Rachixìna the samples were extracted from 0, 1, 2. 5,5,8,13,23,28,32,38,43,48,53,58,63 and 68 cm deep. Lycopodium tablets were added to the samples (Stockmarr, 1971), which were processed using standard laboratory procedures (Moore et al., 1991). Due to the generally low concentration (calculated as number of grains/gram of sediment), a minimum of 200 pollen grains (excluding fern spores) were counted at each level; the minimum number of grains necessary for a statisticallyvalid count was therefore reached (Barkley, 1934;Bryant, Holloway, 1983). Microcharcoals between 10 and 200 μm were counted in pollen slides.
Pollen identification follows the keys and illustrations in Moore et al. (1991) and Reille (1992Reille ( -1995, and the reference pollen collection at the University of Genoa. One sample of each profile was sent to the Beta Analytic Dating Laboratory of Miami (Florida) for accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating. Furthermore, for the Rachixìna soil profile, three additional dates were  Molinari, 2008. assigned thanks to the information collected from some historical documents concerning reforestation practices and authorizations for the ignition of charcoal piles ( Figure 4). The AMS radiocarbon ages were calibrated to calendar years BP (0 BP = AD 1950) using the software OxCal 3.10 (Bronk Ramsey, 2005) and the IntCal04 calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2004). The most likely probability within the 2σ calibrated results (95.4% confidence range) was used for chronological control (Table 1). While for the clay sediments cored at Pian della Cavalla and Lago della Nava it was possible to assume a quite constant sedimentation rate and thus interpolate between the available dates for obtaining   an estimated continuous chronology, for the Rachixìna' soil profile such interpolation was impossible. Summary pollen percentages were graphically displayed together with microcharcoal concentrations (Figures 5 and 6) using the software Tilia 2.0.41 (Grimm, 2015). Local pollen assemblage zones (hereafter L-PAZs) have been defined for each pollen diagram to facilitate the description and the interpretation of major vegetation and land-use changes ( Figure 6).
Variation in palynological richness ( Figures 5 and 6), a proxy for species richness (Oldfield, Dearing, 2003), was estimated using the rarefaction analysis technique (Birks, Line, 1992). By removing the effect of different count sizes on the number of pollen taxa recorded, this method assesses the expected palynological richness if the pollen sum (usually the lowest total sum in the sequence) had been the same for each pollen sample (Odgaard, 2001).

Historical documents
At Pian della Cavalla, the study of different topographic maps (Figure 7) from the last ca. 150 years allows the     progressive retreatment of meadows and the expansion of woodlands to be highlighted. Similarly, the comparison between aerial photos dated 1954 and 1995 (Figure 8) shows the transformation of the landscape from patchy agricultural lands to a more homogenous arboreal vegetation.
At Lago della Nava, the comparison of historical aerial photos ( Figure 9) and historical ground level photos ( Figure 10) from the last ca. 60 years enabled the highlighting of the progressive reduction of the water basin, probably due to an increase in the arboreal vegetation surrounding the wetland and the replacement of pastures with woodlands (see also Gemignani, 2013).
At Rachixìna, evidence about the past management of the area has been collected from historical archival documents. In particular, information concerning reforestation practices and the authorizing of the ignition of charcoal piles over the last ca. 80 years (Figure 4) have been used for dating some variations in the palynological diagram (Figures 5 and 6).
Furthermore, a handwritten map (scale 1: 9450; Figure 11) edited by the Sardinia Kingdom's military topographer Gustavo Scati in 1827 shows -for the area surrounding Rachixìna -a completely open landscape, without trees. In these kinds of maps land-use classification was based on the type of obstacle represented by the forest cover to the passage of military troops or for military manoeuvres (Cevasco, Moreno, 2007). This probably means that the trees present at Rachixìna in 1827 were scattered and did not represent an obstacle for military operations (Cevasco, 2002).

Biostratigraphical analyses
Pian della Cavalla and Lago della Nava sediment profiles were similar in appearance, mainly clayey, grey or brown in colour according to the amount of organic matter and the oscillating water table. The Rachixìna soil profile, by contrast, was characterised by a thick leaf-litter layer (Oahorizon), followed by a dark reddish-brown clay A-horizon and a thick C-horizon of clay with gravel (Table 2).
Pollen preservation was generally poor. Particularly for Rachixìna, a pattern of increasing percentages of corroded/unidentified pollen grains with depth, together with decreasing pollen concentration in the lower samples, is explained by degradation of palynomorphs caused by oxidation processes, microbiological activity, and organic matter decomposition (Gavin, Brubaker, 1999;Wilmshurst,

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Clay horizon with gravel and absence of organic matter (C) 3,9 5YR 3/3 McGlone, 2005). However, despite this, the acidity of the soil profile may have helped towards some level of preservation of pollen grains (Segerström, 1991;Dijkstra, van Mourik, 1995). The pollen and microcharcoal analytical results are presented in three palynological diagrams, one for each study site ( Figure 5). The downward changes in the diagrams, consistent with the vegetation and land-use history described by the historical sources, argue for similar processes occurring across the sites and for minimum bioturbation and mixing of the sequences.
At Pian della Cavalla (Figure 5a), the most ancient L-PAZ (CAV1, 27-50 cm; ~200 BC-800 AD) is characterised by a quite open landscape, with abundant ferns. The main herbaceous species (~65% of Total Land Pollen, hereafter TLP) are Narcissus, Poaceae, Plantago and Labiatae. Ericaceae have their maximum in this phase. The tree cover is dominated by Abies, an important component of northern Apennines mesophilous, mixed woodlands for most of the Holocene, until the Medieval period (Branch, 2004, Guido et al., 2013. Small percentages of Fagus, Corylus, Alnus, deciduous Quercus and Castanea are also present. Mean microcharcoal concentration and palynological richness are lower in comparison to more recent L-PAZs. CAV2 (17-27 cm; ~800-1200 AD) is characterized by an increase in arboreal species (up to 60% of TLP), always dominated by Abies, with Fagus, deciduous Quercus, Corylus, Alnus and Castanea, while the Ericaceae decrease. Within the herbaceous component, Poaceae, ferns and Narcissus are dominant. Microcharcoal concentrations remain quite steady, while palynological richness increases. During the last phase (CAV3, 0-17 cm; ~1200-2000 AD) arboreal species decrease again. This is mainly due to the post-medieval disappearance of Abies (present again -with Pinus and Picea -in the uppermost levels, testifying the reforestation practices carried out in the area during the second half of the 20 th century). The only tree showing an increase is Castanea, underlying the expansion of chestnut cultivation during this period. Ericaceae increase in the last phase. The herbaceous layer (~65% of TLP) is dominated by Poaceae, Cichorieae, Plantago and Narcissus, with Cerealia. Aquatic species (especially Juncaceae and Cyperaceae) reach their maximum in this final phase. Both microcharcoal concentrations and palynological richness increase. The overall picture is thus quite similar to the present landscape.
At Lago della Nava (Figure 5b), the first L-PAZ (NAVA1, 28-50 cm; ~80-1000 AD) is dominated by herbaceous species (~60% of TLP, mainly ferns and Poaceae, with Plantago and Cichorieae). The occurrence of a few Cerealia pollen grains is simultaneous with a peak in the microcharcoal concentration. The shrub component consists of Vaccinium and Juniperus. The arboreal species (33% of TLP) mainly consist of Fagus, Castanea, Alnus and Fraxinus. The presence of Pinus pollen is probably of extra-local origin, while the peak in Abies coincides with the one recorded at Pian della Cavalla during the Medieval period. Palynological richness is low. During NAVA2 (12-28 cm; ~1000-1500 AD) arboreal taxa, aquatics and ferns decrease, while a rise in herbaceous species and shrubs is recorded. Cerealia and palynological richness increase. The most recent phase (NAVA3, 0-12 cm; ~1500-2000 AD) is dominated by ferns, Poaceae, Plantago and Cichorieae. Aquatic species reach a peak around the second half of the 19 th century, and then decrease in recent times. Shrub percentages remain constant. Palynological richness is quite high, as in the previous L-PAZ. Regarding microcharcoal concentrations, their values are discontinuous during the whole recorded time span. This fact might be due to the occasional use of controlled fires for agricultural practices or for an opening up of new grazing areas.
At Rachixìna (Figure 5c), the most ancient L-PAZ (RAX1, 63-68 cm) is dominated by Fagus, with low occurrence of Corylus, Alnus, Quercus deciduous, Pinus and Abies. The high amount of ferns might indicate a high soil oxidation that caused a deterioration of pollen grains (Dimbleby, 1957). The herbaceous layer (~30% of TLP) is characterised by the predominance of Poaceae, Plantago and Cichorieae. Ericaceae have their peak during this phase. Microcharcoal concentration is high, while palynological richness is lower than during the following L-PAZ. RAX2 (8-58 cm; 55 cm = 260-40 BC) is still dominated by Fagus, but with a higher amount of herbaceous species (~40% of TLP). The presence of Cerealia pollen, the microcharcoal oscillations and the higher values of palynological richness support the hypothesis that agricultural practices (probably involving the use of controlled fires) were carried out close to the site. The last phase (RAX3, 0-5 cm; ~1930-2000 AD) is characterised by a close forest canopy (arboreal pollen >80% of TLP), still dominated by Fagus, with Ostrya, Corylus, Quercus deciduous, Alnus, Castanea, Fraxinus and planted Pinus. Herbs and shrubs decrease, and thus so does palynological richness. By contrast, microcharcoal concentration increases, probably due to the ignition of wood piles for the production of charcoal in beech woodlands documented by the historical sources ( Figure 4).

Discussion
The present study can be considered as a first attempt to shed more light -by means of an interdisciplinary approachon the specific dynamics of past land-use connected to the management of beech wooded-meadows in the Ligurian Apennines.
Even if the comparison between biostratigraphical results (pollen and microcharcoal data) and historical sources (archival documents, topographic maps, ground photos and aerial photos) is not straightforward due to the different temporal and spatial scales, the vegetation dynamics recorded by the palynological sequences match quite well with the information collected for the last 200 years from other datasets. Certainly, an increase in the number of sediment/soil samples analysed and of radiocarbon dates for each profile would have improved the reliability of our results.
At Pian della Cavalla, palynological investigations show the presence of an open landscape during the whole recorded time period (ca. the last 2200 years). In particular, since c. 1300 AD, the pollen diagram shows the transition from grazed mixed woodlands to beech wooded-meadows (underlined by the increase in anthropogenic pollen indicators; Figure 5). Furthermore, the high percentages of Narcissus are connected with mowing and grazing practices (Cevasco, 2007), while the increase in microcharcoal concentrations suggests the use of controlled fires in the area.
Also, at Lago della Nava, the palynological results suggest a long-lasting land-use continuity characterised by agricultural management practices connected to the woodedmeadows system. In fact, the whole pollen sequence (about the last 1900 years) records an open landscape, characterised by herbs and shrubs typical of grazed meadows and a sparse forest cover. Furthermore, the discontinuous trend of microcharcoal concentrations suggests an irregular use of controlled fires for temporary agricultural practices or for opening up new grazing areas. In addition, between the postmedieval time and the first half of the 20 th century, the site is described as an important hub in the extensive network of transhumance routes between the coastal areas and the Apennines mountains (Moreno, Raggio, 1990;Moreno, Poggi, 1996).
At Rachixìna, we interpreted the LPAZ characterised by the co-existence of trees, meadows and temporary arable lands (marked by the presence of Cerealia and by a discontinuous trend in microcharcoal concentrations) as the period of maximum spread of wooded-meadows. As already suggested by Lowe et al. (1994), this time span might correspond to the Lombard period (c. 500-600 AD).
Based on these assumptions, it is possible to conclude that -compared to the post-cultural phase -when the woodedmeadows system was in use, the pollen diagrams from Pian della Cavalla, Lago della Nava and Rachixìna were characterised by ( Figure 6): • lower pollen percentages of trees and higher amounts of herbs, typical of landscapes with a predominance of open areas; • higher pollen percentages of shrubs (according to Métailié (1981) and Canals and Sebastia (2002), Ericaceae and Juniperus are taxa normally favoured by the use of controlled fires in meadows and pastures); • higher percentages of anthropogenic pollen indicators (i.e. -according to Behre (1981), Branch (2004), Caramiello and Arobba (2003)  For what concerns microcharcoal concentrations, their trend is quite variable within and between the sites and we have thus avoided making any generalizations.

Conclusions
By combining palynological and documentary evidence with a long-term perspective in order to investigate historical cultural landscapes, this research has allowed more light to be shed on a particular management practice that was previously widespread in the Ligurian Apennines.
In particular, our results have provided independent biostratigraphic evidence of the disappearance of landscapes that were characterized by a higher biodiversity than today, due to the past land-use activities. In all our selected sites, the abandonment of multiple management practices in connection with the wooded-meadows system, documented by the available biological, archival and oral evidence, has caused the loss of part of the environmental and cultural Ligurian heritage.
Although the three sites are today nearly abandoned, this present investigation has offered new insights for a wellinformed restoration of our cultural landscapes or, at the very least, for their proper characterisation. This particular heritage should be preserved with the reintroduction of traditional agricultural activities so as to prevent the current pattern of natural forest succession, and restore vegetation and habitat diversity. By recognising how long-term landscape transformations and exploitation of resources have shaped the structure, composition and function of present ecosystems, it is possible to appreciate the indirect role of past land-use practices (e.g. grazing, mowing, selective cutting of trees and shrubs, hay making, spring raking) in the creation and maintainance of highly biodiverse landscapes.
This study can also be considered a potential contribution to the issues of habitat management and nature-conservation policy, especially because both Lago della Nava and Rachixìna are presently located in protected areas. Since the existence of this kind of landscape was strictly connected to the use of specific management practices, certain conservation actions might be included: from their integration into management plans (e.g. by reintroducing historical agricultural techniques) to the restoration and preservation of ancient pollarded trees.
Financial support was provided by the "Ministre de l'Ecologie et du Développement Durable (France)" in the framework of the project PAHF (Les paysages de l'arbre hors forêt: Multi-valorisation dans le cadre d'un développement local durable en Europe du Sud) and by the Genoa University Research Project (DISMEC-2007) "Storia topografica di sistemi agro-silvo-pastorali" led by Diego Moreno.