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43Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies
www.aaatec.org ISSN 2310-2144
Identification of the Etymon of Indo-European 'Moist', Sinitic 'South', Tibeto-Burman 'Sun, Day, Sky' and Hungarian nap fSun, Day'
Jingyi Gao
Beijing International Studies University, China; E-mail: gao.jingyi@bisu.edu.cn
Abstract
Using etymological methods, the present study has identified two Sinitic and Germanic shared (Sino-Germanic) etymologies (etyma): ||] . These two etyma form a rhyme correspondence. This regular sound change validates the etymological connection in question. The etymon for 'southern sky' has
been identified in Sinitic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, Albanian, Hellenic, Anatolian, Armenian, Indo-Iranian, some Tibeto-Burman, some Uralic and Hungarian. The etymon [||] for 'dark' has been identified in Sinitic, Germanic and Gyalrong. In words of Western linguistics, the Proto-Indo-European root *nebh- 'moist, water from it damp, mist, fog, cloud' is newly identified in Sinitic, some Tibeto-Burman, some Uralic and Hungarian; the Proto-Germanic root *ebanp-lebunp- 'evening' is identified in Sinitic and Gyalrong.
Keywords: etymology, rhyme correspondence, Sinitic, Germanic, Indo-European, Sino-Germanic, Tibeto-Burman, Uralic, Hungarian, astronomical terms, sun, day
Introduction
The Indo-European term for 'moist' H {Proto-Indo-European *nebh- (Pokorny, 1959, p. 315)}; equivalents e.g. Old Church Slavonic небо (nebo) 'heaven, sky'; Old Irish nem 'heaven, sky'; Ancient Greek увфо^ (nephos) 'cloud'; Sanskrit (nabhas) 'ether, vapor, clouds, mist, fog'3 has not been identified in other languages.
The Sinitic term for 'south' [Ш! H{OC-W *nam}; equivalents e.g. Mandarin nan 'south'; Cantonese naam4 'south'; Minnan lam 'south' 3 has been compared (Benedict, 1990, p. 167) to the Tibetan-Burman term for 'sun, day, sky' К{Proto-Tibeto-Burman *nam}, equivalents e.g. Tibetan gnam 'sky, heaven', nam 'night'; Chapang nyam 'sun'; Vayu nomo < nama 'sun, sky'3 .
The Hungarian term for 'sun, day' nap has been defined as 'of unknown origin' (Benko, 1993, p. 1015).
The present study identifies these three etymological chains as one single etymon and supports this etymon with a regular sound correspondence.
Materials and methods
The present paper is a comparative and etymological study. Sinitic is compared to Germanic (and other Indo-European), Tibeto-Burman and Hungarian.
The Sinitic etyma are led by Chinese etyma (DOMs) that are historically attested Chinese glyphs (Sinograms). Their historical glosses are cited from the Chinese classical dictionaries (121-SW; 543-YP). Their historical phonological values are cited from the work Yun jing (1161-YJ) with reference to the dictionary Guang yun (1008-GY) and transcribed according to Appendix 1. Their attested equivalents including forms and glosses are represented by Beijing Yan (Mandarin) (written in Hanyu Pinyin including non-simplified forms), Guangzhou Yue (Cantonese) (written in Jyutping), Taipei Min (Minnan) (written in Tai-lo), Sino-Japanese1 Goon and Kan-on (written in orthography and Hepburn), Sino-Korean (written in orthography and the Revised Romanization) and Sino-Vietnamese (written in orthography), in this fixed order. Their historically attested Old Chinese (OC) rhymes are given according to the work of Wang (Wang, 1980) and reconstructively transcribed according to Appendix 2.
The Germanic etyma are based on the relevant etymological dictionaries (Nielsen, 1966; Kluge, Seeebold, 2011; Kroonen, 2013). Their attested equivalents including contemporary forms and glosses are represented by Danish, Swedish, Norwegian (Bokmal), Icelandic, Old Norse, English, Old English, Dutch, Old Low German, German, Old High German, and Gothic, in this fixed order.
For the etyma in question, etymological equivalents in other languages (other Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman) claimed by other scholars are checked in relevant etymological or comparative works, e.g. the works of Pokorny, Peiros, Starostin and Schuessler (Pokorny, 1959; Peiros, Starostin, 1996; Schuessler, 2007). Such extended equivalents are mostly cited as in references.
Non-English glosses are translated into English in the present study. Refutations of previously claimed etymological equivalents are given in footnotes.
Reconstructed forms are listed only for reference reasons. All the attested forms are compared instead of trusting the phonetic and semantic details of reconstructions, because the reconstructions are always subject to changes depending on [newly] compared attested linguistic data. Two Old Chinese (OC) reconstructions, OC-W according to the work of Wang (Wang, 1980) and OC-Z according to the work of Zheng-zhang (Zheng-zhang, 2013), are listed. Other reconstructions are quoted from the direct references.
Proto-Sinitic, also known as Proto-Chinese, cannot be compared because it is only a theoretical notion without reconstructed results. Proto-Sino-Tibetan cannot be compared because it is a hypothetical notion without a sufficient amount of etyma representing a sufficient number of the languages in question. Many scholars are still comparing only Tibetan, Burmese or another Tibeto-Burman branch to Sinitic e.g. the works of Shi, Huang, Zhang, Jasques and Lai (Shi, 2000; Huang, 2005; Zhang, Jacques, Lai, 2019). The works of Benedict and Matisoff (Benedict, 1972; Matisoff, 2003) have compared more "Sino-Tibetan languages", whereas many comparisons do not touch Sinitic. The work of Starostin and Peiros (Peiros, Starostin, 1996) compares only five "Sino-Tibetan languages": Sinitic, Tibetan, Burmese, Jingpho\Kachin and Mizo\Lushai, whereas still many comparisons do not touch Sinitic. Etyma without Sinitic
1 Sino-Japanese is a linguistic term for the portion of the Japanese vocabulary that is of Chinese origin or makes use of morphemes of Chinese origin (similar to the use of Latin or Greek in English). The same applies to the terms Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese. They do not mean common proto populations.
equivalents cannot be labeled as "Sino-Tibetan". Etyma with equivalents only in one Tibeto-Burman branch and Sinitic may be non-genetically diffused (loaned/borrowed) from Sinitic or from the Tibeto-Burman branch. There is a website called "The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus" (https://stedt.berkeley.edu), whereas its content is so far a thesaurus (book of synonyms, collection of X-English dictionaries) rather than an etymological dictionary. This is the current situation of the comparative studies between Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman. Moreover, the Sino-Tibetan hypothesis has been successively criticized (Miller 1974; Beckwith, 2002, pp. 113-158; Beckwith, 2006, pp. 179-200; Beckwith, 2008, pp. 161-201; He, 2004; Geng, 2005; Guo, 2010, p. 21; Zhang, 2012, 2013, 2014; Qu, Jin, 2013; Qu 2021). Besides, there are hypotheses for the multiple origins of Sinitic (Li, 1990; Schuessler, 2003). In sum, the notion Sino-Tibetan cannot be considered as a certain language family which includes or represents Sinitic.
Etymological equivalents are given in orthographies or transcriptions. Equivalents in Western alphabets are given in boldface if they are found in official languages covered by ISO 639-1. Equivalents in Roman alphabets are given in italics. Cyrillic alphabets are transliterated into Roman alphabets according to ISO 9. If a given equivalent word is longer than one morpheme, the targeted morpheme is underlined (if certain). In successive data, dialectal and authorial variants are separated by a slash (/); grammatical variants are separated by a backslash (\); while lexical variants are separated by a comma (,).
Ancient and fully etymological Sinitic etyma are put in the solid brackets [] and labeled as DOM in tables. Ordinary Chinese terms are put in the blank brackets O or written without brackets. Unattested and reconstructed forms are marked with an asterisk (*). Attested and phonologically realized forms based on ancient Sino-linguistic data (e.g. Chinese descriptions in rhyme tables and rhyme dictionaries) are marked with a blank star (☆). Double quotation marks ("") are added when its target is quoted (on sentences) or not agreed (on forms and terms). Double arrows (^ or indicate genetic diffusions ('inherited' in Western linguistics; 'born' in Sino-linguistics). Single arrows (^ or indicate non-genetic diffusions ('loaned/borrowed' in Western linguistics; 'learnt/educated' in Sino-linguistics).
The methods follow traditional etymology (Vossius, 1622; Lemon, 1783; Rask, 1818; Gao, 2008) and renewed etymology (Gao, 2012/2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019a, 2019b, 2020a, 2020b, 2021; Gao, 2014; Gao, Tender, 2020).
Results and discussion
The common format of the next etymological paragraphs is:
#Number of etymon) [ DOM ] H historical reference: phonetic description original gloss 'gloss' (transcribed form); Mandarin form 'gloss'; Cantonese form 'gloss'; Minnan form 'gloss'; Sino-Japanese form; Sino-Korean form; Sino-Vietnamese form; {OC rhyme group; OC-W reconstruction; OC-Z reconstruction}3 (Read: The Sinitic etymon [DOM] with the contents L..3 ) is or has been compared (reference) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: ... (reference).
This etymon has been or not been identified in other languages (reference). This paragraph is used for other language groups compared in other directions (not Sinitic ~ Germanic but Sinitic ~ other or Germanic ~ other) by other scholars.
#1) [^1£(121-SW): w*M***tttt*Csouth'); (543-YP): ®*\*Ca direction'); (1008-GY): *('fire direction'); (1161-YJ): ^H+M^'¥e^'s(extrovert, final-39, labialized-, division-1, tone-A, dental initial voiced±)(AnoamA); Mandarin nan 'south'; Cantonese naam4 'south'; Minnan lam 'south'; Sino-Japanese Go-on ft ^ (nan); Kan-on К ^ (dan); Sino-Korean nam); Sino-Vietnamese nam; {OC rhyme Ш *-m(p)a; OC-W *nam; OC-Z "*nu:m"}3 is compared (first publication) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: Icelandic nifl 'fog, darkness' (only used in poems); Dutch nevel 'fog, mist'; Old Low German nebal 'fog, darkness'; German Nebel 'fog'; Old High German nebul/nebel 'fog, darkness'; {Proto-Germanic *nebala 'fog' (Kroonen, 2013, p. 386)}.
This etymon has been identified in other Indo-European languages: {Baltic: Latvian debess 'sky, heaven'; Lithuanian debesis 'cloud'} {Slavic: Czech nebe 'sky, heaven'; Slovak nebo 'sky, heaven'; Polish niebo 'sky, heaven'; Russian небо (nebo) 'sky, heaven', нёбо (nebo) 'palate'; Belarusian неба (neba) 'sky, heaven', нёбо (nebo) 'palate'; Ukrainian небо (nebo) 'sky, heaven'; Bulgarian небе (nebe) 'sky, heaven'; Serbo-Croatian небо/nebo 'sky, heaven'; Slovene nebo 'sky, heaven, palate'; Old Church Slavonic небо (nebo) 'heaven, sky'}; {Celtic: Irish neamh 'heaven, sky'; Old Irish nem 'heaven, sky'; Welsh nef 'heaven'; Old Welsh nem 'heaven'; Cornish nev 'heaven'; Old Cornish nef 'heaven'; Breton nenv 'sky'; Old Breton nem 'sky'}; {Romance: Latin nebula 'fog, cloud, vapor'; Italian nebbia 'fog, mist', nebula 'nabula'; Spanish niebla 'fog'; Portuguese nevoa 'fog, mist, haze'; Romanian negura 'fog'} (Romance ^ Germanic via Visigoth and Ostrogoth); Albanian avull 'steam'; {Hellenic: Greek vs9og (nefos) 'smog'; Ancient Greek (nephos) 'cloud'}; {Anatolian: Hittite rnpis 'sky, heaven'}; [Old] Armenian шйщ (amp) 'cloud'; {Indo-Iranian: Avestan\Zend nabah- 'airspace, sky, heaven'; Kurdish nam 'moisture'; Persian fj (nam) 'moisture'; Sanskrit (nabhas) 'mist, fog, vapor, clouds, ether'}; {Proto-Indo-European *(e)nebh- 'moist, water from it damp, mist, fog, cloud' (Pokorny, 1959, p. 315); *dhnebh- (Kroonen, 2013, p. 386)}. {^ Proto-Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic) *nomp3 'fog, mist < damp, steam, moisture, cloud < sun < southern sky > south'}
Additional remarks about the origins of Sinitic: The works of Gao (Gao, 2008, pp. 109-114; Gao, 2012, pp. 241-243; Gao, 2019c, pp. 145-147) put forward that the Shennong nation ft (a.k.a. Yandi clans of Chinese prehistory is the shared origin of Sinitic and Uralic
languages and peoples marked by the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup N-M231, while the Xuanyuan nation ff^ft (a.k.a. Huangdi clans ЙФ^^) of Chinese prehistory is the shared origin of Sinitic and Indo-European languages and peoples; Sinitic is basically made by a convergence of a Sino-Uralic basis and a Sino-Germanic (read Sino-Indo-Germanic) superstrate. Gao's proposition is cited and supported by studies of molecular genetics and archaeology (Li, Jin, 2020, 105-107), although Li and Jin consider the former as 'Uralic substrate of Sinitic' and the latter as 'Sino-Tibetan basis'. We think that Sino-Tibetan is not a valid node, because the etyma shared by Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman form a lower set of the Sino-Germanic shares. Li and Jin related the Sino-Uralic homeland ('the Uralic substratum of Sinitic') to the Hongshan culture where ancient DNA haplogroup N-M231 is largely detected.
This etymon has been identified (Benedict, 1990, p. 167) in some Tibeto-Burman languages: Tibetan gnam 'heaven, sky', nam 'night'; Magari nam-khan ~ nyam-khan 'sun', nam-sin ~ nyam-sin 'day'; Chapang nyam 'sun'; Vayu nomo < nama 'sun, sky'; Bahing\Kiranti nam 'sun'; Nung nam 'sun/sky'; Mikir arnam 'god' ('wind' in compound); Dulong nam53 'sun'; Zaiwa tsan51-nam55 'summer: year-sun'; {Proto-Tibeto-Burman *nam 'sun' (LaPolla, 1987, p. 7); *mm 'sun'
(Benedict, 1990, p. 167)}. Tibetan ~ Magari ~ Chepang ~ Vayu ~ Bahing\Kiranti ~ Nung ~? Mikir (Benedict, 1972, p. 148); Tibeto-Burman + Dulong +? Zaiwa (LaPolla, 1987, p. 7); Sinitic ~ Tibeto-Burman (Benedict, 1990, p. 167); Sinitic ~ Tibetan ~ "Burmese nam 'sky' (Luce)" (Peiros, Starostin, 1996); Sinitic ~? Tibeto-Burman (Schuessler, 2007, p. 396). {^ Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic)}
This etymon has been identified (Gao, 2008, p. 187) in some Uralic languages: Estonian louna 'south, lunch'; Finnish lounas 'southwest, lunch'; Udmurt\Votyak nunal/nunal/ninal/ nmal/nunal 'day', lum-tel 'south wind'; Komi\Zyrian lun/vun 'day, sun light'; {"Proto-Finno-Permic" *lowna 'day, midday' (Redei, 1988, p. 693)}. {^ Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic)}
Additional remarks: This comparison contains an irregular sound change to Uralic (-mp- > -wn-). It has not been validated with a rhyme correspondence but a semantic pair: Both 'south' and 'north' are compared in Sinitic and Uralic. Cf. (121-SW): ^('back side'); (543-
YP): ^a\«('a direction'); (1161-YJ): ^ra+^'ASB**(introvert, final-42, labialized-, division-1, tone-D, labial initial voiced-) (☆poak ); Mandarin bei 'north'; Cantonese baak1/bak1 'north'; Minnan pok/pak 'north'; Sino-Japanese ^^ (hoku); Sino-Korean ^(buk); Sino-Vietnamese bac; {OC rhyme M *-ka; OC-W *pak; OC-Z *pm:g}3 has been compared (Gao, 2008, p. 133) to the Uralic etymon after the equivalents: Estonian pohipohja 'basis, north'; Finnish pohja 'basis', (posio 'tent's rear' ^ Sami\Lappish); Sami\Lappish boassu/passjo/poassu/pdassA/puassA 'tent's rear' (Lehtiranta, 1989, p. 106; Itkonen, Kulonen, 2001, p. 383). {Uralic ^ Shennong (Sino-Uralic) *poXk3 'back side' ^ Sinitic}
This etymon is identified (first publication) in Hungarian: nap 'sun, day'. {^ Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic); or ^ Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic) via Slavic}
The next etymon #2 is studied in order to form a rhyme correspondence with the etymon #1. #2) [^1H(121-SW): Mft('dark'); (543-YP): mm№m^m^it№^m&mmmmim('dark, shadow, south of mountain or north of river, lunar'); (1008-GY): *%»tt('lunar'); (1161-YJ):
H "(extrovert, final-38, labialized+, division-3, tone-A, laryngeal initial voiced-)( ?weam ); Mandarin yin 'lunar'; Cantonese jaml 'lunar'; Minnan im/iam 'lunar'; Sino-Japanese Go-on fth (on); Kan-on ^^(in); Sino-Korean ys(eum); Sino-Vietnamese am; {OC rhyme ^ *-m(p)a; OC-W *iam; OC-Z "*qrmm"}3 is compared (first publication) to the Germanic etymon after the equivalents: Danish aften 'eve'; Swedish afton 'eve'; Norwegian aften 'eve'; Icelandic aftann 'eve'; Old Norse aftann/eftann 'eve'; English eve/evening; Old English cefen/efen; Dutch avond 'eve'; Old Low German avand/aband 'eve'; German Abend 'eve'; Old High German aband/abund 'eve'; {Proto-Germanic *ebanp-/ebunp- 'evening' (Kroonen, 2013, p. 113)}. {^ Proto-Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic) *?wempa 'eve < dark > lunar'}
This etymon has been identified (Zhang, Jacques, Lai, 2019, p. 88) in Gyalrong: Brag-bar ta-ncap 'dark side of the mountain'; Japhug Nqiafi 'dark side of the mountain'. {^ Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic); or ^ Xuanyuan (Sino-Germanic) via Sinitic}
Overview
The etyma #1 and #2 form a rhyme correspondence (Table 1).
Table 1. Rhyme correspondence (Rc#2021JGao-2310-2144-T1): Old Chinese rhyme f *-m(p)a ^ Minnan -am ^ German - Vbe
DOM Mandarin Cantonese Minnan Danish Swedish English Dutch German
imi nán naam4 lâm -- -- -- nevel Nebel
'south' 'south' 'south' 'fog, mist' 'fog'
ifêi ym jaml im/iam often afton eve avond Abend
'lunar' 'lunar' 'lunar' 'eve' 'eve' 'eve' 'eve' 'eve'
Conclusions
Using etymological methods, the present study has identified two Sinitic and Germanic shared (Sino-Germanic) etymologies (etyma): . These two etyma form a rhyme
correspondence. This regular sound change validates the etymological connection in question. The etymon for 'southern sky' has been identified in Sinitic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic,
Celtic, Albanian, Hellenic, Anatolian, Armenian, Indo-Iranian, some Tibeto-Burman, some Uralic and Hungarian. The etymon for 'dark' has been identified in Sinitic, Germanic and Gyalrong. In words of Western linguistics, the Proto-Indo-European root *(e)nebh- 'moist, water from it damp, mist, fog, cloud' is newly identified in Sinitic, some Tibeto-Burman, some Uralic and Hungarian; the Proto-Germanic root *ebanp-lebunp- 'evening' is identified in Sinitic and Gyalrong.
Appendix 1: Transcription of 1161-YJ fl$i (Gao, 2020b, p. 35)
1) (initials)
-tV dental alveolar laryngeal dental velar alveolar labial
m m m m m m & m & m m & m & m m & m m m m m & m m m m m & m m m m m & m m
n i Ç A h ? Ö e dz tsh ts g g kh k n d th t m b ph p
2) MUMM (rimes) (with «ÄM» M^ i^rn^» EH.
rtft(introvert)(9) (incl.^f|^+^S^+[false ^(œ)]) ^Ff|(extrovert)(a) (excl.^f|^+^S^+[false ^(œ)] )
^^S^(-ú),
—^(-äm) (^Äl(/am/))
modification of D tone codas: -gD^-kD; -jD^-jsC; -nD^-tD; -nD^-tD; -^D^-cD; -mD^-pD.
3) mm (tones): ¥-A. ±-B. £-C A-D.
4) MM (medials)
m o[wl 0[i] e [e] e Ü]
a wo [wra] -O [wi ] -e [-e] we [wj]
ma o [u] o[o] re [ 0] re [y]
(nucleus)
№ fi+fi fe+fi fi+fe fe+fe
firt ra[ra'] ra[ra] i[i]:h[h ] i[i]
fert 9[i ]:o[o] 9[l] e[e] e [e]:re [ 0 ]
¿[a] ¿[a] ¿[e] ¿[e]
a [a]:u[u] a[a] ä[a] ä[a]
5) ÄtMtt^Ä (other technical terms)
Sino-linguistics m a ma
Linguistics voiced- aspirated+ voiced+ voiced± labialised- labialised+ labialised± = rounded+
Linguistics in Chinese 0M
Appendix 2: Reconstructive transcription of OC rhymes (Gao, 2020b, p. 35)
^ *-9 ^ *-o ä *-a m *-l9 E *-la rn *-Ö9 ^ *-öa
® *-k9 M *-ko m *-ka ^ *-t9 n *-ta Ä *-09 m *-0a
M *-q(k)9 M *-q(k)o m *-q(k)a X *-n(t)9 % *-n(t)a Ä *-n(0)9 m *-n(0)a
ft *-W9 W *-wa
Ä *-M9 M *-Ma M *-p9 M *-pa
fi *-m(p)9 ^ *-m(p)a
Acknowledgments
This study is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFE0201600), the B&R Joint Laboratory of Eurasian Anthropology (18490750300) and the Education Commission of Beijing (CIT&TCD20190107).
Cited Chinese Classics
121-SW - Xu, S. ffM. Shuo wen jie zi [Explaining Simple Glyphs and Analysing
Compound Glyphs]. Luo-yang (Luoyang), Han ^ (China), ^^^^^ 121. Xu, Xuan deng (jiao $). Dong-jing (Kaifeng), Song ^ (China), 986.
543-YP - Gu, Y. M^I. Yu pian [Jade Book]. Jian-kang ^^ (Nanjing), Liang M (China), 543. [Chen, Peng-nian deng (xiu ii)] Da guang yi hui yu pian XMM"^
Dong-jing (Kaifeng), Song ^ (China), 1013.
1008-GY - [Chen, P. deng (xiu i)]. Da Sdng cong xiu guang yun X^MiMM
[The Grand Rhyme Dictionary Reworked by the Great Song Empire]. Dong-jing (Kaifeng), Song ^ (China), 1008.
1161-YJ - Zhang, L. ^M^ (xu Yun jing MM [Rhyme Mirror], Lin-an (Hangzhou), Song ^ (China), 1161.
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