ICT and Foreign Language Learning: An Overview

Selama pandemi COVID-19 ini, sebagian besar pekerjaan di dunia dilakukan secara daring, termasuk proses belajar mengajar. Pembelajaran daring umumnya ditopang oleh penggunaan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) yang mencakup berbagai aplikasi, metode, dan kegiatan. Artikel ini menjelaskan penggunaan TIK yang dikaitkan dengan teori pembelajaran bahasa dan membahas prinsip-prinsip dalam memilih aplikasi dan platform yang dapat digunakan untuk membantu meningkatkan pembelajaran bahasa. Selain itu, jenis-jenis aplikasi yang tersedia untuk guru dan peserta didik juga dikupas. Setelah memahami artikel ini, para pembaca diharapkan sadar akan pentingnya TIK dalam peningkatan pembelajaran bahasa, pentingnya membuat keputusan dalam memilih alat digital, dan pentingnya pembelajaran bahasa yang dilakukan melalui karya digital.


A. Introduction
Nowadays, it is probably difficult to find a classroom in which learners have not been exposed to computer technology. This has grown up in a world in which the Internet and the World Wide Web have always existed (Prensky 2009). Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn are accessed every day for their personal, social, and media activities. Furthermore, their teachers may make use of technological resources to help them learn English inside and outside the classroom Dela Rosa, 2016;Awada et al., 2020).
The use of technology in the educational field has a long history. In the 1960s, the technological tools for audio input included phonograph records and reel-to-reel tapes, used for listening and drill practices (Warschauer and Healey 1998). In the following decade, the portable cassette tape recorder became popular not only for listening but also for recording voice (Bax 2003). The language lab, with its banks of cassette recorders, linked to a control console, became an indicator of a school's investment in technology for language learning (Hockly and Dudeney 2018). The computer -in the 1980s multi-component desktop units, followed by laptops in the late 1990s connected to wireless networks -transformed the use of technology in the language classroom (Renandya and Widodo 2016). Materials that used to be printed could be accessed on these computers. Worksheets and handouts could be distributed as electronic documents, and interactive quizzes could be created. New possibilities for audio and video playback and creation emerged.
In recent years, Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) covers a range of platforms, materials, and methods. ICT is an integral component of a learning program. Teachers can choose a program, application, or website for use in helping learners learn English skills and aspects. They may create activities in which learners read, respond, or interact with other learners digitally. A school, in addition, may develop a TARLING, Vol. 3, No. 2, Juni 2020E-ISSN : 2614-4271 P-ISSN : 2599-1302 set of learning activities or lists of resources for learners to use outside of class.
Governments in most developing countries have responded to the worldwide proliferation of ICT by initiating national programs to introduce computer technology into education. In the Indonesian context, the regulation of the Indonesian Ministry of Education No. 38 the year 2008 calls for the implementation of technology in the teaching and learning process. The benchmark for its success is one hundred percent of junior high schools that have access to electricity to implement TV-based learning (Budiman & Ngadiso, 2018). Moreover, the benchmark is fifty percent of senior high schools that have access to apply ICT-based learning. There have been ten universities in Indonesia that have applied ICT-based learning and research (Budiman & Ngadiso, 2018). The government believes that ICTbased learning is associated with the student-centered-based curriculum.
Unfortunately, the technology implementation in the educational field in Indonesia seems to be lacking consideration of teachers' reactions to the new tools. Whereas, recent studies have shown that the successful implementation of educational technologies depends largely on the attitudes of educators, who eventually determine how they are used in the classroom (Albirini 2006). The fact that the teachers tend to use traditional methods they are comfortable with makes a little use of technology. Some teachers who want to create or implement digital learning find it difficult to select suitable tools and resources. Therefore, this article aims to describe (1) how foreign language learning theory is supported by ICT, (2) guides to choose the digital learning tools and activities, and (3) digital tools and activities for supporting EFL learning inside and outside the classroom.

ICT and Its Contribution to Foreign Language Development
One of the prominent language learning theories is a rich linguistic environment can support language development. CALL can provide a linguistic environment which is one of the keys to learning language (Dela Rosa 2016). Teachers, learners, and the language are the core components of the foreign language classroom, and the computer is often a fourth component, a tool that can help teachers understand better the process of learning and how to support their students to be effective learners (Jamieson and Chapelle 2010). Yunus et al (2010) also state that computers and courseware are becoming important tools for learning in institutions. Since the 1950s, technology has supported a succession of foreign language theory such as the chalkboard's support of grammar-translation method and the cassette tape's support of the audio-lingual method (Warschauer and Healey 1998). The activity of drill and practice became more effective in using computer technology (Budiman, 2017). By the 1980s, communicative approaches to language learning had emerged, and technology facilitated greater students' interaction (Warschauer and Healey 1998).

Furthermore, Krashen's hypothesis of comprehensible input (1982)
is supported by CALL, through which input may be adjusted to meet learners' needs (Chapelle 2007). Some features of CALL are salient to foreign language learning regarding interactionist theory (Wilkinson 2016a). Among of the examples are (1) new input types like hyperlinked text, with its multimedia integration and (2) the visual features of CALL applications, including input enhancement properties such as typographic or phonological qualities, which appear to lead to increased awareness of language features and language errors and/or mistakes (Wilkinson 2016b).
Foreign language theory is well supported by CALL, which offers chances that go beyond what is possible in the traditional face-to-face classroom situation. As an example, the use of a discussion board offers (1) opportunities for discussion not dominated by individuals, (2) more linguistic input that learners can use to notice and use in their output, and (3) output that is richer than oral language (Warschauer and Healey 1998). The opportunities to get feedback are increased in a computerbased environment compared to a face-to-face classroom. Learners can get feedback from other online communicators in addition to their teachers in the classroom. Research also shows that ICT can help teachers reach pedagogical goals, and can have a positive impact on students' language skills including reading, writing, and listening, and the development of vocabulary (Røkenes and Krumsvik 2016).

ICT and Literacy Development
Literacy, in the past, meant to be able to read and write, but in the twenty-first century, it is taken to mean more. Ohler (2009) proposes four kinds of literacy as essential to success namely digital, art, oral, and written. The competence to provide one's views to a real-world audience in spoken and written digital formats is an expected part of academic work, job-seeking, and job responsibilities. The foreign language activities can be expanded to include such 21st-century literacy-building activities as digital storytelling, reading, writing and responding to blog posts, instruction in writing effective emails, searching for and evaluating appropriate sources, avoiding plagiarism, and building an electronic portfolio (Ohler, 2009;Tyner, 2014). Eventually, the students can become content creators which they always dream of, and by doing so can develop their literacy.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning
Synchronous or "real-time" learning refers to learning events that take place with all learners at the same time. In a distance-learning environment, students can join a virtual classroom, for example, a CoLearn group, for real-time communication. For audio-visual interaction, a link on a videoconference platform such as Zoom Meeting and Google Meet may be established. In this learning situation, students need to log on to a learning platform at a specific time to participate in the learning activities. In a writing class, for example, a group of students at different locations, could collaborate to write a draft of composition in Google Docs, then post it on Edmodo, where their teacher will read and comment on it. The students could read the practice essays posted by other groups in the class and post their comments along with the teacher (Wilkinson 2016a). All students benefit from the work of the whole class and it is all accomplished within a specified time.
Asynchronous learning, on the other hand, is the learning which happens when a group of people, not in the same place or working at the same time, access online resources individually to work toward their learning goal. Learning management systems (such as bulletin boards), newsgroups, email, discussion boards, and blogs are examples of digital literacy environments that accommodate asynchronous learning (Renandya and Widodo 2016). In using these, the time and place can be decided by the learner, as long as there is access to the learning environment. For example, in a self-access course, a learner accesses and downloads an activity from an LMS, then completes it and uploads it to a blog on the platform, after which the teacher will read the work and post a comment. The teacher may provide links to online resources to help the student better understand an instructional point of the work.

Principles of Choosing and Evaluating ICT Tools and Resources
Teachers may be expected by administrators, parents, or learners to make use of ICT in their teaching and learning process. However, they may lack knowledge and familiarity with guidelines on how to do this. Besides, they may find the number and variety among the tools too great to make sense of. Teachers must be aware that few of the applications and websites available to them have been specifically adapted to foreign language learning, and therefore need to adapt them to their teaching and learning contexts (Wilkinson 2016b). Towndrow and Vallance (2004) suggest that IT in language learning needs to be integrated into a meaningful task that involves the relationship between what the learners learn in the classroom and what they face in their daily lives. In other words, the best use of IT aims to provide language learners with enriching and diverse experiences in the classroom. Towndrow and Vallance (2004, p.105) list ten characteristics of IT that add value to language learning: • IT makes possible activities that could not be done as easily or at all in the print-based realm. • IT allows the integration of digital media.
• IT allows greater flexibility as to the place and time when learning takes place.
• IT allows access to a wide range of information.
• IT allows for a focus on both the products and processes of learning.
• IT allows instructional material to be stored and recycled.
• IT encourages discussion and consultation.
• IT provides a channel for feedback and assessment.
• IT reduces the need to duplicate previously produced materials.
• IT allows time to be saved. Towndrow (2007, pp.68-69) further refines what teachers must take into consideration when planning a lesson involving ICT and suggests that the learners' needs, interests, and abilities would make a good starting point. Furthermore, Stockwell and Hubbard (2013) propose a set of principles to guide teachers when administering a mobile language learning activity. Among them are: • Teachers need to limit multitasking in an activity and keep it short but meaningful.
• Teachers need to guide learners on how mobile devices can be used for language learning.
• Teachers need to plan for unequal ownership and access to mobile devices among learners and to recognize learners' preferences for public vs. private learning spaces.

Tools, Techniques, and Activities: ICT Resources for EFL Classrooms
Teachers are dealt with a wide range of options when they are to select ICT resources and activities to facilitate foreign language learning. In this session, some skill-specific applications (commercial and free), general applications that can be used to support foreign language learning, and examples of integrating technology into foreign language learning activities are discussed.

Skill-Specific Applications
These can be divided into commercial tools for purchase and free online tools.

a.
Commercial foreign language learning tools Commercial tools may be available in particular formats (i.e. CD, DVD, or download) and are often prepared to work on one or two versions of an operating system (i.e. Windows 10 and Mac OS 10.9). They can be stand-alone applications or linked to published textbooks. Recently created applications may be browser-based and thus machine-independent (Wilkinson 2016b). They may be available as one-time purchases or on a subscription basis. As the software must be purchased to use, it is typically free from advertisements. Wilkinson (2016a) proposes some ideas of using commercial tools in teaching foreign language: Cool Sites for ESL Students listed some free accessible websites that support foreign language learning in specific skills (Hennessy et al., 2005;Mullamaa, 2006;Yunus, 2007;Rahimi & Yadollahi, 2011;Zainal, 2012;Raman & Halim Mohamed, 2013;Dedja, 2015;Naqvi & Al Mahrooqi, 2016;Sabiri, 2020). The websites found on such lists can generally be accessed on most browsers. Digital literacy skills can be brought into focus by guiding learners into differentiating the advertising from the links to site material as there are a lot of advertisements in free learning tools. An example of a long-running free ad-supported site to practice listening is Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab (www.esl-lab.com). For use by teachers, Gerry's Vocabulary Teacher (www.cpr4esl.com/gerrys_vocab_ teacher/index.html) is a site where vocabulary exercises can be created.
When designing a task for a specific group of learners, teachers can include material from the aforementioned free websites as part of the task, as source material to read or listen to, or because the websites are informative so that they can be used as resources (Wilkinson 2016a).

Web Resources
A web resource is a website that provides informative content to foreign language learners, yet not specifically for them. An online dictionary is an example of a web resource. In an online dictionary (e.g., Cambridge Dictionary), a user can get a definition of a word or phrase, the transcription in phonetic symbols, and can listen to its pronunciation, usually in British and American English.
A web resource for writers is, for example, the Purdue University Online Writing Lab. This website is designed for a wide audience and provides specific advice for foreign language learners. This website provides information that covers grammar (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and coordination); assignment prompts (stance, tone, and purpose), and steps of the writing process. The site map is a useful starting point (www. owl.english.purdue.edu/sitemap/). Another example of a web resource for checking English grammar is Grammarly. It does not only cover grammar but also clarity and plagiarism. Moreover, it can be embedded in Microsoft Office so that users can write and check grammar at the same time.
YouTube is a resource for foreign language learners with a wide range of effective materials. A teacher can choose EFL material directly from the YouTube channel (e.g., my channel "Mr. Asep") or choose a video clip from a film for use with a listening lesson, or an impetus for a speaking or writing task. A video on how to pronounce English sounds or a video that models good public speaking skills may be selected. In some tasks, the authentic language of a video may be the focus, but in other contexts, it is the information itself that is more important. Also, there is automatic subtitling on YouTube, but the technology is still in enhancement and in many cases the results are inaccurate. Free subtitle generators can be found online (see www.wondershare.com/multimedia-tips/subtitle-maker. html). However, applications that automatically generate useable subtitles through speech recognition do not appear to be ready.

Mobile Applications
Applications (apps) on mobile devices have created new uses and functionality for the devices. An app is a small program for a mobile device that accesses a particular site in a simplified and user-friendly way (Renandya and Widodo 2016). Apps are designed to ease access to and TARLING, Vol. 3, No. 2, Juni 2020E-ISSN : 2614-4271 P-ISSN : 2599-1302 develop the usability of a particular organization's content or functions. An example of an app developed for use in improving spoken English is Well Said (www.itunes.apple.com/sg/app/nie-well-said/id495877379). This free pronunciation app, designed at the National Institute of Education, Singapore, familiarizes learners with the International Phonetic Alphabet and gives example recordings of the sounds of English as well as videos and animations of a speaker producing the sounds. It also features ways for learners to interact with each other, such as a link to a discussion forum. While there is no corresponding standalone website that learners without a mobile device can use for Well Said content, versions of the app were developed for both Android devices and Mac iOS (Renandya and Widodo 2016).

Sites for Recording
Before smartphones became mushrooming, learners who wanted to record their voices had to use recording programs such as Audacity, which could be installed on computers or more recently MP3 recorders. Nowadays, smartphones have built-in voice recorders such as Voice Memos for iPhone and Easy Voice Recorder for Android devices. Web applications such as Vocaroo enable online voice recording as well. In both cases, the recordings can easily be shared (Wilkinson 2016b).

Web 1.0 Tools
Web tools have developed gradually from static and non-interactive pages, software, and techniques known as Web 1.0 (Strickland, 2008). Those include email, web page design, and chat forums. Web 1.0 tools continue to contribute to language teachers. The tools can be easy to use and promote communicative skills in various ways (Wilkinson 2016a).
The disadvantage of Web 1.0 tools is that a sense of personal authorship may not be facilitated because of the short written nature of the texts (e.g., emails or chat board posts), or the informational nature of the website (Wilkinson 2016b). Yet, there is still worth in using these older tools. Email, of course, can be used as a means of helping learners figure out the concept of purpose, audience, and context, and can help them gain strategies for communicating with different audiences.

6.
Web 2.0 (The Read-Write Web) Compared to Web 1.0 which was generally a one-way experience, the new Web 2.0 tools provide a more interactive experience. O'Reilly (2012) compared Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia that provides users with the opportunity to edit and suggest, with a traditional online encyclopedia. Wikipedia users can contribute to, edit, and revise documents so that the articles are always evolving (Wilkinson 2016b). Web 2.0 tools are participative and encourage users to be content creators, creating and uploading content to share with other users. Long-form blogs such as the Webnode or Wordpress platforms and short-form microblogging platforms such as Twitter exemplify two tools of use to language learners. Wilkinson (2016a) notes some of the uses of blogs and Twitter in the language classroom.

•
Blogs can be used for longer, more organized texts and can be used as a way for learners to share ideas for classroom discussions. They can be used to generate ideas for longer, more formal papers, or to store material sourced from the web, including multimodal content (e.g., links, videos, images) to be used in writing academic papers.
Teachers may use learners' blog posts to help develop rhetorical modes, arguments, and referencing skills.
• Twitter, which permits brief posts of up to 140 characters, can be used to share brief and possibly only partially formed ideas or develop an ongoing, participatory narrative among learners in a group.
Collaborative and cooperative learnings can also be supported by Web 2.0 tools. In Google Docs, as an example, learners who are each logged into a Google account can create and edit a text document at the same time. Each learner's contribution to change is color-flagged in the Google Docs window, and with each change logged by the system, it is easy to examine TARLING, Vol. 3, No. 2, Juni 2020E-ISSN : 2614-4271 P-ISSN : 2599-1302 and return to a previous version if the group decides against keeping its latest updates (Renandya and Widodo 2016).
From the teacher's side, Web 2.0 tools can be invaluable for preparing resource sites or course packages for learners. Platforms such as Google Sites, Schoology, Quizizz can be used by the teacher to organize an annotated collection of web resources. As an example, a teacher may look for and unite a collection of web resources with examples of the use of verb tenses, or YouTube videos about pronunciation practice. An extension of such resource sites is an activity for learners to complete having reviewed and practiced with the material on the sites.

7.
Social Learning Platforms Web 2.0 tools like blogs are by default public and particularly findable. Several teachers and learners might not be fully comfortable with the open nature of these tools and may want to preserve privacy over their digital work. Social learning platforms such as Edmodo can be the answer.
Edmodo was developed as a safe, ad-free, school-friendly alternative to Facebook (Wilkinson 2016b). Teachers and learners sign up freely, and then the teachers set up a group and invite learners with a code. Learners can interact, submit assignments, comment on the others' work, and get feedback from their teachers in these members-only group. Learners can continue to access their Edmodo groups until the teachers delete the groups.

Assessment in Digital Work
Assessment of digital language learning projects can be done in several ways. The product may be scored from language aspects and/or language skills perspective: Is the grammar good? Is the vocabulary wide? Is the pronunciation clear? Is the delivery well-paced with appropriate sentence rhythms? Is the writing understandable? and so on.
Teachers can also assess the multimodal aspects of the product. Towndrow (2007, pp.92-93) describes four possible interactions between modes.
• Decoration: it is an image at the beginning of a video that is attractive to the viewer but does not contribute to communicating the story.
• Captioning: it is a label in one mode which is applied to another. This is commonly seen in journalistic videos where, for example, a label identifying an interviewee is placed at the bottom of the screen during the interview. shopping there, which would not be evident from the video alone. Towndrow (2007) makes the point that language teachers need to be clear about what they want their students to do or learn. In the case of the digital story, the teacher may decide that the learners should demonstrate not only specific language skills but also elements of multimodal literacies, perhaps even to the point of demonstrating effective use of multimodal interactions. An example of a rubric for digital storytelling developed at the University of Houston (2010) gives descriptors in these categories, which form a mix of traditional and digital literacies: • purpose of story The rubrics such as Rubistar are good places to begin. Teachers may choose to assess the appropriate use of intellectual property and avoidance of plagiarism (Wilkinson 2016a). Learners can also take part in the assessment process, creating rubrics based on their experiences viewing or creating digital stories, or assessing their work using the rubrics provided by the teachers (Renandya and Widodo 2016). Learners can be further involved in self-assessment as a way to reflect on and make improvements (Towndrow, 2007). Morris and Stommel (2015) recommend that digital teaching starts from explorations and allows room for unexpected findings. Digital projects which are conceived for how they will be assessed fail to provide the opportunity to allow for unexpected discoveries.

C. Conclusion
There is a wide range of digital tools and resources for teachers to expand their language teaching and learning in EFL contexts. From free web resources and commercial programs that may support learners to practice and improve specific language skills (writing, speaking, reading, and listening) and language aspects (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary) to "adaptable" programs that enable learning in many possible ways with ICT. Morris and Stommel (2015) suggest ten things the best digital teachers do. Among them are: • they start by working with the tools they're familiar with • they incorporate ICT gradually • they find ways to adapt or "hack" digital tools • they improvise and allow space for discoveries and surprises.
Teachers need to be clear about their purpose for integrating ICT in their teaching and learning process. Building awareness of how specific tools or techniques can support learning is very necessary. Designing meaningful language learning activities that motivate learners through useful contributions is a key task for teachers, and can lead to greater satisfaction and learning effectiveness than teachers and their students may imagine. This article has tried to help readers become aware of the relationships between foreign language learning theory and ICT, to discuss principles when choosing ICT tools, and to describe a language learning through the digital project. We as teachers need to integrate ICT in our teaching and learning process in the classrooms in service to our educational goals and to the benefit of our students. Finally, technology, of course, cannot substitute teachers, but teachers who make use of technology will substitute them.