Figures of mounted warrior saints in medieval Crete. The representation of the equestrian Saint George “Thalassoperatis” at Diavaide in Heraklion

In the church of Saint George Sfakiotis, built on the outskirts of the settlement Diavaide in the Perfecture of Heraklion in Crete, narrative interest is focused on the large painting with the mounted figures of the military saints George and Demetrios. Saint George is shown together with the young pillion rider, whereas the element of water on the lower part of the scene establishes a connection between the episode of the slave’s release and a rarer variant according to which the liberator saint crosses the sea (‘thalassoperatis’, trans. he who crosses the sea). The iconographic and stylistic analysis of the representation of Saint George as well that of Saint Demetrios at Diaviade reflects the artistic environment of the Eastern Mediterranean, possibly that of Cyprus, where images of equestrian military saints form part of the tradition of the island.


In the church of Saint George Sfakiotis, built on the outskirts of the settlement Diavaide in the Perfecture of Heraklion in Crete, narrative interest is focused on the large painting with the mounted figures of the military saints George and Demetrios. Saint George is shown together with the young pillion rider, whereas the element of water on the lower part of the scene establishes a connection between the episode of the slave's release and a rarer variant according to which the liberator saint crosses the sea ('thalassoperatis', trans. he who crosses the sea). The iconographic and stylistic analysis of the representation of Saint George as well that of Saint Demetrios at Diaviade reflects the artistic environment of the Eastern Mediterranean, possibly that of Cyprus, where images of equestrian military saints form part of the tradition of the island.
Key words: Thalassoperatis, Saint George, Saint Demetrios, mounted military saints, Cyprus, Crete, Diavaide In 1950 and 1951 the renowned Cretan academic Manolis Chatzidakis conducted two surveys on the island of Crete in order to inspect the mural decoration of some monuments of the island and ensure their conservation and rescue. He thus visited and briefly recorded the churches at the east and west part of the Cretan countryside and published the findings of his research in the journal Kretika Chronika of 1952, including iconographic and stylistic analyses of the Cretan painting during the Palaeologan era. 2 Chatzidakis explored Pediada District and among other monuments he visited the church of Saint George Sfakiotis at Diavaide. 3 The large representation of Saints George and Demetrios ( fig. 1) on horseback seems to have captured his attention. In his study reference is made to the fact that the two equestrian saints were depicted walking on the sea while he drew comparisons with the wall painting of Saint George Diasoritis from the church of Archangel Michael at Pedoulas in Cyprus dating from the 15th century. 4 1 bormpoudaki@gmail.com 2 Μ. Χατζηδάκης, Τοιχογραφίες στην Κρήτη, ΚΧ 6 (1952) 59-91. 3 Ibid., 67 4 Γ. Σωτηρίου, Τα Βυζαντινά Μνημεία της Κύπρου, Aθήνα 1935, pl 103.
The church of Saint George Sfakiotis 5 is built on the outskirts of the settlement Diavaide, 6 within short distance of the nearest village Kastelli, a large village of Pediada which constituted one of the most significant provinces in Venetian Crete. The iconographic programme of the church at Diavaide, which is typically encountered in the churches of the island, includes representations of the Dodekaorton, narrative scenes from the life of Saint George and standing saints, dated to the end of the 13th/early 14th century according to Manolis Borboudakis 7 . In the church of Sfakiotis narrative interest is focused on the large painting that occupies the south wall of the church with the mounted figures of the two military saints George and Demetrios galloping left, beneath scenes from the biographical cycle of Saint George ( fig. 1). To our right is depicted the mounted Saint Demetrios (O AΓIOC ΔHMH [ΤΡΙΟC]), portrayed with his head in a three-quarters turn riding on a chestnut-red horse with lavish tack. The saint wears his hair long and is dressed in long dark red sleeved tunic, ornamented with a pearl-embroidered band, scale breastplate, girdled high just below the chest, whereas the ochre mantle, which is decorated with heart-shaped patterns, flutters behind him. He holds a spear in his right hand and the horse's reins in his left hand while he carries a round shield with radial decoration. The figure of Saint George, to whom the church is consecrated, shown clad in military attire riding on a white horse with rich tack, will be the focus of this study. The saint is frontally depicted, with lightly oval face, large finely outlined almond eyes, short curly hair crowned with diadem decorated with pearls and a large semiprecious gemstone in the centre (stemmatogyrion). He wears next to his skin a shirt, from which only the wristbands are shown, long dark red sleeved tunic, and deep blue leggings embellished with an oblique checkerboard ornament under red boots. 8 His breastplate, which is belted high around the chest, is covered by scales, rectangular in cross-section, ending in lappets around the thighs. A large round shield with a diagonal checkerboard pattern painted red and blue hangs from his right side and a red ample chlamys billows behind him. In his right hand he grabs the reins of his horse, while in his left hand he holds a lance and simultaneously embraces a boy who sits on the horse's croup. The youth is shown carrying a small pitcher in his right hand and a cup in his raised left hand whereas he wears an eastern type headgear. On the lower part of the representation ( fig.  4) the sea waves are indicated by semicircles tangent to each other, arranged in three parallel rows, whereas fish and sea creatures, such as crabs, cuttlefish and moray eels, complete the decoration.
The representation illustrates one of the most popular pairs of military saints on horseback, 9 depicted either individually or one next to the other in churches of the 8 For military costume v. Μ. Parani, Reconstructing the reality of images. Byzantine material culture and religious iconography 11th-15th centuries, Leiden-Boston 2003, 101-158. 9 For the figure of Saint George v. C. Walter, The warrior saints in Byzantine art and tradition, Aldershot-Burlington 2003, 109-144.
Cretan countryside in the 14th and the 15th centuries, 10 with the earliest representations being found sporadically in churches dating from the 13th century. 11 The figures of the equestrian saints, which have been linked with the Byzantine tradition, 12 are encountered in numerous mural paintings of the Christian East during the Middle Byzantine period, 13 whereas from the 13th century onwards 10 Mounted Saints are very popular in the art of Crete. Evidence of equestrian soldiers is preserved, for example, in the church of Panagia Platania at Amari dated at the early 14th c. (I. Spatharakis, T. van Essenberg, Byzantine wall paintings of Crete III, Amari province, Leiden 2012, fig. 518) where the images of the mounted Saints George and Demetrios are depicted in a frontal pose, of Saint John at Discouri Mylopotamos Province dated to the late 14th c. (Μ. Borboudakis, K. Gallas, K. Wessel, Byzantinisches Kreta, München 1983, 122, fig. 73) or in the church of the Virgin at Thronos, Amari dated to the 3rd quarter of the 14th c. (Spatharakis,Essenberg,Amari Province, Moutoullas, Cyprus, in: Byzanz und der Westen, ed. I. Hutter, Wien 1984, 193-195, fig. 18-20) 18 Saint George on horseback has been a favourite subject matter in the decoration of the churches of the Cretan countryside. In the church of Saint George Sfakiotis, the namesake saint is shown together with the young pillion rider, an element that establishes a link between the Cretan representation and a relevant variation of the Synaxarion of the saint referring to his posthumous miracles, according to which Saint George rescued from captivity a boy from Mytilene that had been abducted by the Saracen pirates of Crete during the feast day of the saint and who was brought back home across the sea. 19 18 Weitzmann, Icon painting in the Crusader Kingdom, There are three versions of the episode of the rescue of the young captive by Saint George, attributed to the texts of the Synaxarion of the Saint, published by Aufhauser (J. B. Aufhauser, Miracula Sancti Georgii, Leipzig 1913, 13-18, 18-42, 100-103;idem, Das Drachenwunder des heiligen Georg in der griechischen und lateinischen Überlieferung, Leipzig 1911, 4-6, 166). These texts have been interpreted by Myslivec [J. Myslivec, Svatý Jiří ve východokřestanském иmění, BS 5 (1933-1934 (Aufhauser,Miracula Sancti Georgii, and is found in other manuscripts as well (Grotowski,The legend of St. George,29ff). According to a third version the youth was captured in Paphlagonia by the Hagarens. This version appears for the first time in the 11thcentury manuscript Codex Parisinus 1604 (Aufhauser,Miracula Sancti Georgii,(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18). 20 The earliest fresco of Saint George rescuing the youth from Mytilene is found in the church of Saint George Ikvi at Kartli dated to the 11th c. In the church of Saint Eirene dated to the 12th c. and the church of Saint George at Ozaani appears a plainer representation of the episode which consists of the joint depiction (symplegma) of plainer variation prevails and appears in churches and icons of Greek lands/territories, mainly the islands (Rhodes, Cyprus, the Cyclades) 21 4) establishes a connection between the episode of the slave's release and a rarer variant according to which the liberator saint crosses the sea. This iconographic type was first identified and studied by Georgios Dimitrokallis who bestowed on the saint the epithet 'thalassoperatis' (trans. he who crosses the sea). 28 In his study Dimitrokallis reported ten representations dated between the 12th and the 17th century, including the one under consideration at Diavaide, and expressed the view that the theme originates in the southern Greek mainland and the islands. However, he acknowledged that the earli-  [Λασσιθιωτάκης, Εκκλησίες της Δυτικής Κρήτης (1969)  est preserved depictions appear in the "crusader East" and referred to the wall paintings of Saint George Thalassoperatis that decorated the chapel of the crusader castle at Crac de Chevaliers (1170-1200) 29 and the church of Saint Moses the Black (the Ethiopian) at Mar Musa al-Habashi near Nebek in Syria (1192-1193 or 1208). 30 In the earlier icons of this type he also included the icon of Saint George of Cappadocia from the church of Saint Marina Philousa, now at the Byzantine Museum of the Metropolis of Paphos, which dates back to the 13th century. 31 Moreover, a series of early images of Thalassoperatis reflect the spread of this particular variation across the Eastern Mediterranean during the 13th and the 14th century. More specifically, in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and in the church of Saint Sabbas at Edde al-Batrum (Lebanon) are preserved fragments of a wall painting that depict a portion of a horse and a marine environment with fish (1264). 32 Research has identified the figure as Saint George on horseback crossing the sea. Furthermore, in Christian Egypt, at the Convent of Saint Mercurius (Deir Abu Sayfayn), in Cairo, a Coptic templon epistyle dating to the 13th century is preserved on which ten equestrian saints are depicted encompassed in arched compartments, including Saint George Thalassoperatis. 33 The subject is also encountered in the Holy Monastery of Saint Catherine at Sinai where four icons have been recorded, 34 possibly of the 13th, the 14th and the 15th century, and one diptych with the figure of Saint George Thalassoperatis portrayed on one of the panels whereas the second panel is occupied by Saint John the Baptist. 35 Among them is the crusader icon inv. no 357 of the 13th century that, according to Folda, conforms to the Franco-Byzantine style. 36 The wall painting in the church of Saint George Sfakiotis bears resemblance to the icon inv. no 357 of Sinai and that of Saint George the Cappadocian, now displayed at the Byzantine Museum of the Metropolis of Paphos, 37 which are both related to the art of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Crusader period. To be more specific, in all three representations the element of water is clearly denoted on the lower part of the composition with fish and sea creatures imparting a naturalistic and charming flavour to the scene. In addition, the equestrian saint is frontally depicted in all three examples, looking straight out towards the viewer, 38 crowned with a jewelled 29

Fig. 4. Mounted Saint George and Demetrios from the Church of Saint George Sfakiotis at Diavaide, Pediada province
the round shield of Saint George in the Cretan church at Diavaide is decorated with a diagonal checkerboard motif with small crosses inscribed in squares -a direct reference to a coat of arms of the time period-which according to the western tradition alludes possibly to the ktetor (founder) of the church or most probably draws attention to the cultural identity of the Venetian landlord of the fief, 47 without excluding influence exerted by the iconographic model of the representation. 48 Some of the details of the tack illustrated on the fresco of Saint George at Diavaide have been identified in representations of military saints related to "crusader works" or are found in areas under Crusader control, 49 such as the jewelled saddle, with the tall western cantle, decorated with a diagonal checkerboard pattern, the double crupper with a bow on the rear part of the harness, but also the wide girth with the angular black and white motif fastened around the barrel of the horse of Saint George. 50 The horse of Saint Demetrios at Diavaide bears similarities whereas the covering of his horse's body with faint round scales, as on the murals that depict the same subject matter found in Crete, 51 Rhodes, Chalki and c) (ibid., fig. 518). We could also mention the mounted Saints in the church of Saint George at Anydri, Selino (1323)  Aegina, 52 is rendered in a naturalistic manner indicating the chainmail barding that protected the body of the crusaders' horses. 53 It is also striking that the image of Saint Demetrios at Diavaide bears additional iconographic similarities to crusader icons and especially that of Saint Sergius with a female donor from Sinai, attributed to a Cypriot-influenced Syrian artist as argued by L.A. Hunt, 54 M. Immerzeel 55 and J. Folda 56 in respect of the facial features of the saint, the hairstyle, the jewelled cuffs and tunic, the pose of his leg, the tack of the horse, the wide girth with the diagonal motif fastened around the barrel of the horse and the round shield although the style of our Saints indicates that the painter at Diavaide was trained in the region of Crete.
To the representations of Thalassoperatis which are encountered in the art of the Cretan countryside is added one more scene from the church of Archangel Michael Astratigos, a dependency (metochion) of the Holy Monastery of Saint George Epanosifis, at Agalantes, also in Heraklion Prefecture, 57 where all of the examples of this iconographic type are found. 58 Fish and sea creatures which are noticed on the lower part of the partially preserved scene that constitutes the second paint layer of the church dating to the early 14th century, and also the leg of the figure which is shown sitting on the horse's hindquarters indicate that it is a representation of Saint George Thalassoperatis carrying the young captive from Mytilene. What is more, in the country church of Saint Marina outside the village Panagia at the site Hani Moulefe in Arkalochori, among the wall paintings dating from the first half of the 14th century, lies one more representation of Saint George crossing the sea, next to an unidentified figure of an equestrian saint. 59 On the lower part of the obscure mural and below the legs of the horse of Saint George, the sea waves and fish within a semicircular rocky landscape are similarly rendered as on the Sinai icon inv. no 52   357. Behind him, the badly preserved figure on horseback could be identified with Saint Demetrios, who is normally not depicted standing on the sea. Besides, the accounts of the Synaxaria do not confirm any kind of relation of Saint Demetrios with the sea. Given the differences between the two representations at Moulefe and Diavaide and despite the poor condition of the mural in the church of the Virgin, the presence of a common iconographic model in both churches is ascertained, on the one hand, by the individual details, such as the saddle, the sea waves, the hooves, the straps of the tack, the cantle that is decorated with pearls and, on the other hand, by the attempt to render in a painterly manner the pair of the equestrian saints of which Saint George is depicted in the iconographic type of Thalassoperatis. Nonetheless, it can be argued that the joined depiction of the two saints standing on the sea waves at Diavaide possibly reflects the technical deficiency of the provincial painter who wished to combine two different models in a single representation. The depiction of equestrian saints in alignment is presented in the Coptic templon epistyle from the Convent of Saint Mercurius in Cairo, 60 in which Saint George Thalassoperatis is clearly distinguished from the rest of the represented figures of equestrian saints, as he is similarly encompassed in a vaulted compartment. The portrayal of Saints George and Demetrios on horseback crossing the sea together in the church of Saint Marina and also at Diavaide enables us to assume that it constitutes a local variation of the theme, given that it appears in the two churches of Heraklion Prefecture and, based on the hitherto published monuments, remains unknown in the iconography of the Eastern Mediterranean. Meanwhile, one more example of Thalassoperatis could be traced on the depiction of Saint George on horseback ( fig. 5) in the church of Saint George in the neighbouring village of Apostoloi located in the Province of Pediada. 61 Based on stylistic grounds the saint at Apostoloi dates back to around the middle of the 14th century and up to 1360 and displays several iconographic features that are also found in the fresco of Saint George Sfakiotis. These include the pose of the saint with the leg thrust forward, the red billowing cloak, the posture of the horse, as well as the tack. Furthermore, the relief fleur-de-lis motif on the halo of the saint, which is encountered on Cypriot icons and has been associated with the Lusignan dynasty, 62 and also the emblem of the yellow cross set against red background 63 in the triangular western shield 64 of the saint that possibly recalls visually a crusader or the ktetor 60  of the church, but also the style in which the figure has been rendered suggesting a Cypriot model, suggest that the painter in the village of Apostoloi assimilated foreign elements which are incorporated within the artistic language of the Eastern Mediterranean and particularly Cyprus. Moreover, the representation on the lower part of the scene with the continuous circles that are tangent to one another, possibly indicate the sea waves, although the poor preservation state of the paint layer and the absence of fish that would normally suggest marine environment do not allow a positive identification.
The iconographic analysis of the representation of Saint George as well that of Saint Demetrios at Diaviade reflects the artistic environment of the Eastern Mediterranean, 65 possibly that of Cyprus, where images of equestrian military saints form part of the tradition of the island. 66 The type of Thalassoperatis appears on a total of four representations on the island of Cyprus, both icons and frescoes dating from the 13th to the 16th century, 67 although it cannot be excluded that a greater number of images have been produced. It is possible that the image of the mounted George from the church of Saint Nicholas tes Steges in Kakopetria (1300) can be identified with the type of Thalassoperatis since the figure of the equestrian saint seems to have been combined with sea waves on the lower part of the painting. 68 The partly preserved mural of the equestrian saint from the church of Panagia Aphentrika (12th-13th c.) at the Monastery of Saint Chrysostom at Koutsovendis in Cyprus during the period of the Lusignans 69 could possibly be considered as depicting the same subject matter. 70 It has been maintained that a marine environment is illustrated beneath the horse's legs 71 although the poor state of preservation of the wall painting does not allow reliable identification with the iconographic type of Thalassoperatis. On the other hand, the image of Saint George Thalassoperatis is also identified in the churches of Rhodes which however are later in date, with the frescoes of Saint George Diasoritis in the church of Saint Nicholas at Fountoukli (1497/8) 72  In the accompanying inscription at Diavaide Saint George bears the epithet CΦΑΚΙΟΤΗC (Sfakiotis). It denotes a toponym and is linked with the region of Sfakia in the Province of Selino in the southern part of the island, which presumably is the place of origin of the dedicator (or dedicators) of the church. As far as I am aware, the epithet Sfakiotis is not encountered in any other representation in Crete or elsewhere, but is found as a surname in Venetian documents. 74 This hagionym is also referred to in the dedicatory inscription on the west arch that faces westwards in the church of Saint George. In the ktetoric inscription the date when the building was erected and decorated has not survived.  75 Meanwhile, a graffito with the date 1414 on the north wall establishes a terminus ante quem for the execution of the murals of the church. Since the last letters of the inscription that would refer to the year in which the church was decorated have not been preserved, the wall paintings at Diavaide can be dated, judging solely by stylistic criteria, to around 1300. 76 Hence, we can observe that despite the damages which the paint layer has suffered in places and the disparity in the way the scenes have been treated that could be attributed to the presence of two painters, at Diavaide shading has been employed in combination with the linear rendering, particularly of details, especially for the modeling of the saints of the lower zone. Nevertheless, the linear treatment has been decreased compared to earlier paintings that belong to the 13th century. The faces, which are marked by contour lines, are modelled with brown underpaint with superimposed broad brushstrokes of ochre for rendering brighter passages, restricted areas of green shadows, whereas a few highlights of white paint emphasize the linear features. The figures are stiff, portrayed in restrained postures and movement, and cannot be compared with the figures in monuments of the mid-14th century in Cretan painting, shown full of vitality and vibrancy. Meanwhile, concerning the style in the firmly frontal figure of the equestrian κιον. Αφιέρωμα στη Μνήμη του Παύλου Λαζαρίδη, Αθήνα 2004, 259, fig. 84b. 73 Archontopoulos, Ο ναός της Αγίας Αικατερίνης, 138-140, 153-155. 74 It is interesting that a person named Georgios Sfakiotis appears in a contract of 1325 into which he had entered with the Sinaitic Monastery regarding a pasture that he rented from the establishment for a year, on condition that the lease would be extended the following year (Χ. Γάσπαρης, Η γη και αγρότες στη μεσαιωνική Κρήτη, 13ος-14ος αι., Αθήνα 1997, 120, n. 33). 75 Δ. Τσουγκαράκης, Ε. Αγγελομάτη-Τσουγκαράκη, Ανέκδοτα χαράγματα και επιγραφές από ναούς και μονές της Κρήτης, Μεσαιωνικά και Νέα Ελληνικά 9 (2008) 328. 76 Manolis Borboudakis, who described the style of the painting decoration as provincial, dated the frescoes at the end of the 13th/ beginning of the 14th century (Μπορμπουδάκης, 13η Εφορεία Βυζαντινών Αρχαιοτήτων, 889). Andrianakis and Giapitzoglou reached also to the same conclusion. Cf. Ανδριανάκης, Γιαπιτζόγλου, Χριστιανικά Μνημεία της Κρήτης, 179. Saint George the strong linearity, the two-dimensional drawing style as well as the motionless and austere pose of the saint bears similarities to images from monumental painting of Crete dating to the 13th century, such as the equestrian Saint George from Sklavopoula in Selino (1291) ( fig. 2) and that from Panagia Kera, at Mirabello Province (13th c.). 77 It should be noted, however, that even though the technique which is employed on the garments and the anatomical details shown through the robes is purely linear, on the flesh parts the figure of George ( fig. 6) is enlivened by the use of green shadow on the cheeks, ochre for the brighter portions and a few white highlights, thus indicating that the mural at Diavaide should be dated after the fresco of Saint George at Sklavopoula (firg. 2) and in particular around 1300 up to the first decade of the 14th century, along with the rest of the decoration at the church of Sfakiotis. Meanwhile stylistic affinities can be traced with the icons of Saints Sergius and Bacchus on horseback and the one of Saint Sergius, both in the collection of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai, dated to the middle of the 13th century and attributed to the so called "workshop of the soldier saints", which is believed to reveal a number of similarities with Cypriot painting. 78 Although the images are dissimilar in details and quality, with the icon of Saint Sergius revealing a superior artistic quality, the figures in the two icons as well as the fresco at Diavaide have heads which are large in relation to their short and two-dimensional bodies. The faces, sophisticated and elegant, are further enhanced with a linear treatment revealing the facial features and in particular the eyes. Meanwhile the rendering of the horses which is, however, characterized by a rather flattened and schematic rendering at Diavaide, displays their close resemblance. At the same time the image of our Saint finds close parallels with the figure of Saint George on horseback from Panagia Asinou in Cyprus dating possibly to the late 12th century, 79 regarding the design of the details of the face with the large almond eyes and the flat and linear modelling. Yet, besides the above mentioned stylistic affinities which could be attributed to a Cypriot model, the fresco at Diavaide reveals clearly that it was created by a local Cretan artist.
Based on the aforementioned the following remarks can be extracted: The image of Saint George Thalassoperatis at Diavaide is rare in the painting of Venetian- and the church of Archangel Michael, Astratigos, dependency (metochion) of the Holy Monastery of Saint George Epanosifis, all dating from the beginning of the 14th century. The representation in the church of Saint George at Apostoloi in Pediada cannot be safely identified, yet it belongs to the depictions of the miracle of the rescue of the young captive by Saint George, which is found in approximately thirteen churches of the island and in a limited number of Cretan icons. Based on the iconographic and stylistic analysis that was attempted in this study, it is believed that the model of the mural should be sought in the artistic environment of the Eastern Mediterranean, where the subject of the equestrian military saints was particularly widespread, 80 and possibly in an icon of the 13th century from Cyprus or by a Cypriot painter. Meanwhile mounted warrior saints, bearing iconographic similarities to the figure of George at Diavaide are encountered in a series of churches on the island of Crete dated to around 1300 and during the 14th century.
The representation at Diavaide demonstrates the familiarity of our painter with the art of the Eastern Mediterranean and particularly Cyprus, whereas the possible circulation of such works in Venetian-occupied Crete cannot be excluded. The icon of a Cretan collector, now kept at the Benaki Museum, leads us to this assumption, 81 as it suggests that the icon was influenced by the workshops of 80  the Eastern Mediterranean, possibly via Cyprus. The icon depicts the Virgin Dexiokratousa with figures of saints on the carved frame, and, according to Nano Chatzidaki, it is believed that it was produced in Crete during the 13th century by a painter who maintained obvious ties with the crusader environment. In addition, the abovementioned figure of Saint George on horseback from the church at Apostoloi in Pediada Province (fig. 5) seems to have been produced by a painter who reproduced a Cypriot model or whose origins were traced in the Eastern Mediterranean, possibly Cyprus, to which a large number of the workshops of the East had been relocated shortly before, but also after the fall of Acre in 1291. 82 It is also possible that artists from the East were active in Venetian Crete too. Information on the import of icons or the arrival of artists from Cyprus or the Eastern Mediterranean in Crete during the time period have poorly been attested by the sources as far as I am aware, except in the case of the Cypriot painter Baylianus Catellanus who was traveling to Crete from Cyprus with the Constantinopolitan artist George Chryssokefalos in 1357. 83   of the Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Crete, Cyprus and Constantinople, were placed under his protection. 84 Therefore one could not exclude that Cypriot icons were imported from Sinai to Crete. Nonetheless, the evidence, which has been presented so far, points to this speculation. In fact, the new geopolitical conditions that emerged from the dissolution of the crusader and Frankish kingdoms of the East in 1291 reinforced the position of Candia within the network of maritime trade routes of the East and contributed to the strengthening of contacts with the Eastern Mediterranean and Cyprus in particular. The harbour of Candia as a major station for the transit trade that was conducted across the Eastern Mediterranean played a pivotal role in the transport of commodities, luxurious goods, but also people to and from Constantinople, Cyprus, Rhodes and the Middle East, 85 thereby turning Crete into a hospitable place.