Education for the cultivation of emotions through textbooks: the example of Croatian high school history textbooks

Background/purpose – Contemporary teaching focuses on the students’ active role in the acquisition of knowledge and largely neglects the role of emotions. Given the importance of empathy when it comes to the emotional development of the individual, and the opportunities offered by history as a subject with regard to encouraging empathy, the main purpose of research is to analyze the extent to which history textbooks contribute to empathy as one of key competencies of today’s world. Materials/methods – In the research, qualitative and quantitative content analysis was used. The analysis includes only one didacticmethodical toolkit of the textbook questions and tasks by the formulation of which it is possible to identify in which direction the teaching process “moves” and to what extent it encourages the cultivation of emotions. Results – The results suggest that high school history textbooks overemphasize the cognitive aspect of the learning process while simultaneously inadequately putting students in a position that would also allow them to be more emotionally engaged with the historical events and to thereby develop empathy. Conclusion – It is necessary to develop detailed guidelines with clear instructions on how to encourage students’ emotional engagement in individual subjects and teaching units.


INTRODUCTION
The role of emotions in education is discussed within various disciplines-from philosophy, psychology, sociology, pedagogy to specific theories of teaching and learning. Many of those discussions emphasize the importance of cultivating emotions in terms of the overall development of a person, demonstrating the importance of integrating emotions into the educational process. Therefore, it is realistic to expect that the positive cultivation of young people's emotions will take a prominent place in educational plans (Kalliopuska, 1983, p. 9). Legislation and educational documents such as national or school curricula and subject curricula should include and encourage the cultivation of emotions as one of the key principles of the teaching and learning process. Seeing that the textbooks are still the most commonly used teaching tool, they can serve as a basis for recognizing the importance of the emotional educational component. The concept of textbooks as a source of knowledge and a guide for shaping the teaching process provides multiple opportunities to encourage students' emotional development. Therefore, a textbook can serve as support to the basic principles of holistic education. This relatively young pedagogical conception is based on the perception of a person's overall potential and their optimal realization (Miller et al., 1990) in the context of which it can rightly be concluded that emotions are an important segment of this type of education. Starting from that statement, the authors will try to research in what way the high school textbooks for the first grade encourage empathy in students, and based on the results, they will create specific guidelines for the cultivation of emotions in the context of affective development of students. The following textbooks from four publishing houses will be analyzed in the current study:  "Povijest 1. Udžbenik iz povijesti za prvi razred gimnazije" (Bilid Dujmušid et al., 2019), published by Alfa.  "Svijet prije nas -Povijest 1. udžbenički komplet za povijest u prvom razredu gimnazije" (Tomorad et al., 2009), published by Meridijani.  "Zašto je povijest važna 1? Udžbenik povijesti za prvi razred gimnazije" (Budak, et al., 2019), published by Profil.  "Tragovi 1. Udžbenik povijesti u prvom razredu gimnazije" (Caput et al., 2019), published by Školska knjiga. Emotions affect and direct an individual's actions and have a direct impact on learning processes (Perkun, 2014;Retz, 2018). In the literature, the notion of emotions in the context of learning and teaching is associated with intelligence, or in effect, competence. Emotional intelligence is the ability of an individual to: (a) understand their own feelings; (b) listen to others and empathize; and, (c) express emotions in a productive manner (Goleman, 1998). When emotional intelligence is discussed, we often emphasize the unbreakable connection between an individual's cognitive and emotional development. The learning process, that is, the cognitive development of an individual, depends on their affective level, i.e., on the emotions considered to be the fundamental stimulus of the learning process (Brebrid, 2008;Feshbach & Feshbach, 2009;Krathwohl et al., 1964;Main & Kho, 2020;Mayer et al., 2004;Perkun, 2014).
Furthermore, it is important to emphasize the possibility of learning and forming emotional competence, which directly shapes emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2004;Munjas Samarin & Takšid, 2009). Emotional intelligence cannot be clarified without detecting emotional competencies, and is therefore the result of emotional learning in different social contexts, especially in the educational and interpersonal (social) context (Zeidner et al., 2002). Due to the emphasis placed on the development and construction of emotional understand one's own feelings, distinguish different types of emotions, and to use knowledge about one's own and others' emotions in action (Mayer & Salovey, 1990;Mayer et al., 2004;Zeidner et al., 2002). It is important to emphasize that, even though certain authors disagree with the concept of emotional intelligence emphasizing its developmental component, the authors of the current study are guided by emotional intelligence as the equivalent to emotional competence achieved through emotional learning. The emphasis is placed on empathy as an essential part of these concepts, which is also a key concept for the research. Emotional learning, as a part of formal education, aims to develop empathy in students in relation to other students.
Nowadays, the humble textbook is perceived not only as a means of transmitting information (Hummel, 1989), but as a kind of co-creator of the educational process. In this paper we will focus on the instruments that accompany and enrich the textbook's primary content. According to the generic structure of textbooks, they are mostly based on theories of learning and teaching, and provide readers with insight into different educational goals and approaches. Based on this toolkit, we can, for example, understand whether teaching is student-centered or teacher-oriented; which areas of learning hold a greater emphasis, i.e., to what extent is there an insistence on the cognitive, and to what extent is the emphasis placed on the affective developmental component; and the extent to which communication, social, creative, critical, research, and other skills are encouraged (Loewen, 2009). In the same way, the aforementioned toolkit can help us detect stimuli for students' emotional engagement. However, our goal is not to research the extent to which textbooks contain such incentives since it would be too complex a task given the number of subjects or the diversity of teaching content. The aim here is to point out generally applicable ways of mediating emotions through textbooks.
In order to do this, we first need to single out the elements of didactic-methodological tools that most often accompany the basic content of the textbook. These are, for example: (a) written and image-based materials whose role consists of supplementing the basic text, presenting the problem in a different light, and, finally, arousing the student's interest and motivation (Baqués, 2006); (b) questions and tasks from the formulation of which it is possible to identify in which direction the teaching process "moves" and to what extent, among other things, it encourages the cultivation of emotions; and, (c) additional remarks in textbooks that direct students as readers or aim to highlight the most important elements of the content. How these elements are structured can form the basis for stimulating the emotional development of students.
Research conducted by Donelly and Sharp (2020) regarding historical empathy and perspective-taking in history textbooks suggests that two out of five history textbooks do not contain tasks aimed at developing historical empathy in students. Bharath and Bertram (2018) researched how much images and additional written materials develop deeper historical thinking and understanding. Their research suggested that history textbooks lack varied viewpoints of historical events, which is the premise for the evolvement of historical empathy and deeper historical understanding. Morgan (2014) analyzed six textbooks as a case study in order to analyze how empathy and perspective-taking are mediated in educational materials. One of those six textbooks mediates empathy using different perspectives, perspective-taking, and primary textual sources. Relating with students' lives and experiences, all these components were detected to develop students' empathy. In Croatia, similar research was conducted by Alagid (2019) with regards to different tasks and questions on convergent and divergent thinking in elementary schooling. Although it does not include the analysis of tasks and questions that develop empathy, the research suggests there exists a lack of questions regarding divergent thinking that may help to develop creativity, and which can be associated with perspective-taking and the empathy development.
Keeping in mind the need to develop the entire personality in formal education, students' affective development clearly must not be neglected over their cognitive development. Affective development refers to an individual's emotional growth during the learning process and is related to values, attitudes, emotions, and behavior. One of the fundamental assumptions of affective growth is the development of an individual's emotional competencies, and emphasizing empathy as a part of emotional development is common to all emotional competency classifications ( Bar-On, 2006;Goleman, 1998;Main & Kho, 2020;Saarni, 1999).

METHODOLOGY
The subject of the current research encompasses the latest history textbooks aimed at high school education in the Republic of Croatia, approved for the first time for the 2019/2020 academic school year. These are history textbooks aimed at the first grade of high school which represents one of the results of a curricular reform that began in 2016 in the Republic of Croatia. This reform, based on the Strategy of Education, Science, and Technology (2014)  Assessment, 2020)). Seeing that the key documents in Croatia emphasize, at least in principle, the importance of emotional development of students, our aim is to explore the extent to which questions and tasks, as didactic-methodological tools of textbooks, encourage students to develop and practice empathy as one of the components of their emotional development. The questions and tasks were chosen keeping in mind that they represent the easiest way to detect the goals of history teaching, i.e., what was intended to be achieved. Historical content represents a good basis for the development of empathy, since this concept seeks to bring students closer to different thoughts, actions, perspectives, and attitudes in order that they may better understand them. Empathy, as a concept, seeks to develop the more humane side of students' personalities which they will then be able to apply not only in other subjects, but also in their everyday life.
Given the importance of empathy when it comes to the individual's emotional development and the opportunities offered by history as a subject with regards to the encouragement of empathy (Athanases & Sanchez, 2020;Brooks, 2011;Cunningham, 2009;Davis, 2001;Davison, 2011;Dulberg, 2002;Dunstan, 2018;Endacott, 2014;Endacott & Brooks, 2013;Kohlmeier, 2006;Lazarakou, 2008;Yilmaz, 2007), we assume that based on questions and tasks in history textbooks we may be able to gain an insight into the extent to which high school history textbooks encourage students to understand the complete picture of historical events and the extent to which history textbooks contribute to empathy as one of the key competencies of today's world. As such, answers to the following research question were sought in this study:  RQ: Do high school history textbooks' questions and tasks for first grade support the development of empathy in students? Qualitative and quantitative content analysis was employed in the research. The analysis did not include all of the textbooks' content; instead, one of the didactic-methodical tools applied in the textbooks was examined -questions and tasks that accompany the basic visual and written material. Analysis of the questions and tasks determined the frequency that students' development of empathy is encouraged in high school history textbooks. The current research was conducted during the 2019/2020 academic school year. The subjects of the research were high school history textbooks that were officially approved by the Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Croatia for 2019/2020. Four different high school textbooks sourced from four different publishing houses were analyzed and compared, having been approved for usage during the first grade of high school. The books analyzed were, "Povijest 1. Udžbenik iz povijesti za prvi razred gimnazije" (Bilid Dujmušid et al.

RESULTS
Using a quantitative and qualitative method of content analysis, we determined the number of questions and tasks within each of the four history textbooks that were formulated to encourage the development of empathy in students. The obtained results are presented in Table 1. A higher number of questions and tasks that encourage the development of empathy points towards a finding that the textbook is more successful and closer to fulfilling the role of a teaching tool that, in addition to cognitive, is seen to contribute towards students' affective development. 0 Analysis of the questions and tasks contained within the four examined Croatian first grade high school history textbooks showed that the textbook toolkits encouraged the development of empathy in students only to a very small extent. As such, Table 1 demonstrates the significant disproportion between the total number of questions and tasks in history textbooks and the number of questions and tasks which actually encourage the development of empathy.
From the four analyzed textbooks, the one published by Meridijani (authored by Tomorad et al., 2009) contains the largest number of questions and tasks that encourage empathy in students, whereas the textbook published by Profil (authored by Budak et al., 2019) contains the least, even though the book itself contains the largest number of questions and tasks overall of the four books. Table 1 also shows that most questions and tasks relating to the encouragement of empathy in students are connected with the process of systematization and repetition of what was learned, and that such questions and tasks are mostly found located at the end of individual topics. On the other hand, Table 1 clearly shows that the potential of visual and written sources of knowledge as a possible instrument for encouraging empathy in students has been inadequately exploited, despite a large number of questions and tasks related to these sources of knowledge being contained within each individual textbook. In other words, the history textbooks appear to recognize the potential of both visual and written materials as sources of knowledge, and that textbook toolkits that can encourage the active role of students as learners, yet the same potential of these textbooks when it comes to encouraging the development of empathy in students has been insufficiently addressed.
Rarely asked questions and tasks relating to the encouragement of empathy are formulated as follows: In Profil's textbook (Budak et al., 2019), there is a question -Imagine that you are the same age as now, but that you are of the opposite sex and that you live in ancient Athens…make a weekly schedule of your own activities. In the textbook by Školska knjiga (Caput et al., 2019)

DISCUSSION
The analysis of Croatian high school history textbooks aimed at first-grade students showed that the examined textbooks each contained numerous questions and tasks. Moreover, the textbooks each contain a considerable number of questions and tasks aimed at encouraging students' active role in the process of teaching and learning, which is evident from the way in which they are formulated. Thus, a large number of questions and tasks were found that aim to encourage more cognitive processes in students such as reasoning, connecting, and creating. Therefore, in history textbooks, there is a noticeable departure from the encouragement of purely factual knowledge. The reasons for moving history textbooks away from the adoption and reproduction of historical content towards an active approach to textbook content should also be sought in newspapers, when it comes to approaches to teaching and learning processes, brought about by curricular reform in the Republic of Croatia. These new approaches emphasize, among other things, the need to practice methods and strategies that focus on the way that today's students learn, and the development of the students' overall personalities, which takes into account their cognitive and affective development. However, we must point out that the potential of the textbook's visual material does not seem to be exploited as a means of encouraging students to develop the emotional component. The same goes for written sources that do not encourage students to develop and build empathic understanding or include already built empathy in understanding and interpreting what is written. Similar findings can be found in the research by Bharath and Bertram (2018), Donelly and Sharp (2020), and also Morgan (2014). We believe that it may be concluded that based on the analysis of history textbooks, it is evident that despite the large number of questions and tasks in the textbooks, questions and tasks aimed at encouraging students to develop empathy have been significantly neglected. This approach to questions and tasks, as one of the most represented textbook tools is, on the one hand, surprising if we keep in mind that the need to develop and encourage empathy is often associated with the teaching of history. Specifically, it is emphasized that the understanding of a historical event, phenomenon, and process at the cognitive level can only be achieved where the students are encouraged to think empathetically (Bartelds et al., 2020;Brooks, 2011). On the other hand, the neglect of the development of empathy throughout high school history textbooks is not surprising because, as previously pointed out, the analysis of documents used to create and select textbooks in general, and specifically history textbooks, do not emphasize the importance and necessity of encouraging empathy in students.
Given the large representation of questions and tasks in high school history textbooks, as well as the fact that a significant part of the teaching and learning process relies on the usage of such textbook toolkits (Haydn et al., 2001), we may conclude that high school history textbooks purposely do not insist on encouraging students to understand and acquire a complete historical situation. The reasons for such a conclusion can be found in the insufficient level of encouragement seen in textbooks, which serve as a basic teaching tool for students' emotional engagement, including understanding and empathizing with the actions and behavior of others, as one of the prerequisites of cognitive development.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
In the teaching process, learning and teaching is based on cognitive development; more precisely, the development of knowledge and skills, whereas affective development, understanding one's own feelings and those of others is often largely neglected. Research has shown that emotions play a role in students' academic success (Brebrid, 2008;Cooper, 2011;Feshbach & Feshbach, 2009), which is why teaching processes should pay attention to the understanding of emotions as well as their impact. The key feature of emotional intelligence is precisely its developmental component -emotional reactions, understanding one's own emotions, recognizing and understanding the emotional reactions of others, and it is developed through social interactions and teaching materials. Educational institutions are the primary place of socialization of children, as well as for their education, which is why they play an important role in the development of emotional intelligence. There is a special emphasis placed on empathy as acceptance, and understanding of feelings, opinions, and the social position of others (Kalliopuska, 1983, p. 9).
Textbooks, as the most common co-creators of the educational process, can encourage empathy in students with certain guidelines, illustrations, tasks, and questions, and textbooks today still remain the primary teaching tool by which the teaching process and students' thinking are created, and therefore their potential is vast. Research on history textbooks shows that this potential has yet to be satisfactorily exploited. Having analyzed high school first grade history textbooks, we can conclude that despite the large number of questions and tasks, the kind of questions and tasks that encourage the development of empathy in students are neglected and visual and written sources alone are not sufficiently employed to encourage students' emotional engagement. Given the positive aspects of the development of empathy in students, such as improved academic performance (Brebrid, 2008;Cooper, 2011;Feshbach & Feshbach, 2009), it is necessary to raise awareness of the role that emotional intelligence plays in the future development of students and their potential academic success, and to encourage textbook authors and publishers to change their approach towards the composition of textbook questions and tasks. Likewise, it is deemed necessary to develop detailed guidelines that include clear instructions on how to encourage students' emotional engagement in individual subject areas and teaching units at the national level. History, as a subject that teaches historical events, has a good basis for developing students' empathy, if only this potential is sufficiently recognized and acted upon. Given that textbooks are one of the most commonly employed teaching aids, the questions and tasks they include should be articulated for affective development, rather than just cognitive, as they play a significantly important role.
Therefore, in the process of cultivating empathy through the teaching of history, classroom instruction should be based upon establishing an affective connection (understanding how the life experiences of historical persons shaped their emotions and thus their actions) (Endacott & Brooks, 2013, p. 43). Questions and tasks contained in history textbooks should be designed in such a way so as to develop historical empathy, and which may then lead to empathy exhibited by students in their everyday lives and daily interactions with others. Within this process, the teacher's role is as mentor, providing students with the necessary materials, and to guide them through active learning methods in order for them to form a deeper understanding of historical events (Davison, 2011;Endacott & Brooks, 2013;Lee & Ashby, 2001;Yilmaz, 2007). To develop empathy through history textbooks, the authors of such, as well as the teachers who utilize the books in their lessons, have to bear in mind certain questions, for example:  for understanding personal similarities and differences with a historical figure: Have you ever had to make a difficult decision? How did you handle it? How similar or different is your situation from the situation of a historical person? How would you describe the situation of this historical person? Have you ever found yourself in a similar situation?
 for emphasizing the historical context: How does life in the Republic of Croatia differ from the life described in this unit? Which five key events led to a particular historical event?...and…for stressing out the importance of the historical situation and the teaching unit: Why do you think we will work on this teaching unit for 3 teaching hours? Why do you think it's important to think about what we have in common with this historical person? (Endacott & Brooks, 2013).

DECLARATIONS
Author Contributions Each step of the research was conducted by the authors together, based on an understanding of common responsibility.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest. Funding None. Ethical Approval No ethical approval was necessary as the article does not present any study of human or animal subjects. Data Availability Statement The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.