Coaching in an Educational Setting Utilizing “ Techniques of Change ” : Enhancing Engagement with Learning in a Post-16 Educational Setting VOLDIS KUDLISKIS

The purpose of this study was to explore whether or not Techniques of Change associated with Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) could enhance engagement with learning for boys in the post-16 education setting. This was an action research case study that utilized a mixed methods approach. Participants were coached by a qualified NLP practitioner and used NLP workbooks to aid and enhance understanding of “Techniques of Change” associated with NLP. Participants also engaged with a pretest and posttest questionnaire and participated in semi-structured interviews. The study predominantly sits within the interpretivist paradigm. It is a single-site, multivoice study. “Positions of Consensus” are presented in relation to Techniques of Change enhancing boys’ engagement with learning. The outcome of this research provides some speculative evidence that Techniques of Change can enhance engagement with learning for Year 13 males. This study provides educationalists, managers, teachers and parents with an opportunity to consider how a specific form of coaching may encourage enhanced engagement and enriched learning outcomes for boys in post-16 education. This, in turn, may lead to greater positivity in their specific educational context and broader social interactions.


Introduction
There is increasing pressure on school leaders, further education (FE) leaders and teachers from governments, at a global level, and parents to ensure educational success for all learners.Successive governments, educators, and teachers have been troubled by the polemic associated with lack of engagement with learning and underachievement.In England and Wales, for example, particular attention continues to be given to boys' underachievement especially during secondary education (ages 11 to 15 years).Considerable research has been conducted suggesting the varying extents to which intellectual, social, familial and cultural factors can lead to some boys' underachievement.A number of classic sociological studies have explored boys' lack of engagement with learning and underachievement (see Mac An Ghaill, 1994;McDowell, 2003;Willis, 1977) and many of the findings from these seminal works provide an initial insight into boys' underachievement.More recently, Francis (2005) identified the "anti-academic lad" whose "laddish" masculinity contributes to underperformance in school.Many underachieving boys may continue on to post-16 education with a similar (underachievers) mindset to that held during their secondary education (Kerr, 2010a).
This study is set against the above and the specific backdrop of a sixth form review (see Kerr, 2010b) at a community college in the south-west of England deemed to be "Outstanding" (Ofsted, 2010).("Outstanding" is the highest classification for schools in England and Wales awarded by Her Majesty's Inspectorate; HMI -Ofsted).The review was instigated by the College in order to provide an external evaluation and perspective as to why there was a significant dip against value-added indicators in relation to Advanced Subsidiary (AS) and Advanced (A) level national examinations which seemed to conflict with the Ofsted designation of "Outstanding."AS and A levels are English qualifications that can be sought once students have finished their formal secondary education.AS and A levels can be completed in a schools' sixth form or at a further education (FE) college.AS and A levels frequently, although not exclusively, act as gateway qualifications to enter undergraduate studies, typically at a university.The review identified important strengths at the college.However, the report collectively identified the majority of students as members of "Confident Britain."These students comprised predominantly, but not exclusively, of males who were considered to be lacking engagement with learning and "underachieving."Underachievement in this context reflected a mismatch between AS and A level examination outcomes and data predictions grounded in Cognitive Assessment Tests (CAT) scores and General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) grades as presented within SISRA Analytics.SISRA Analytics is a software program designed specifically for schools to interrogate student data in relation to past educational performance and current examination outcomes.(GCSE's are the final certification to be taken, typically, at Year 11 (age group 14-16 years) in England.Students who have completed GCSEs are deemed to have completed their formal secondary education.) The sixth form leadership team and I, as teacher-researcher, were keen to examine whether or not a specific strategy could enhance boys' engagement with learning when studying at the post-16 level.This became a target in the College and Sixth-form Development Plan in the 2013/2014 academic year.In particular, the aim of this researcher's case study was to explore, through study participants, the possible benefits of utilizing a coaching strategy, namely "Neuro-Linguistic Programming" (NLP), when implemented in this EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019 specific post-16 educational context.Would this particular form of coaching assist boys to engage more with their learning as they became explicitly aware of techniques that could enhance engagement with learning?

Research philosophy
This study was conducted under the broad investigative philosophy of action research.Action research is grounded in the involvement of practitioners such as teachers and managers in systematic enquiries designed to improve practice (Koshy, Koshy, & Waterman, 2011).Such research is conducted "on the job" and provides teaching practitioners with opportunities to systematically examine issues that are important to them in their specific work context (Whitehead, 1985).The unique position of teachers in the educational process permits them to "develop their own personal theories of education from their own class practice" (McNiff, 1988, p. 1).Moreover, action research can provide a specific form of insight that may not be available via the positivist tradition.The seminal work of Carr and Kemmis (1986) emphasized that action research is a form of self-reflective enquiry and involves all those experiencing specific social situations.Individuals, be they learners, teachers or researchers, build their understanding of their specific social world and social experiences through a phenomenological approach (see Schutz, 1973).More recently, Barry (2013, as cited in Atkins & Wallace, 2013) introduced the concept of "Living Educational Theory" (LET), stating, "[it is] a critical and transformational approach to action research.It confronts the researcher to challenge the status quo of the educational practice" (Barry, 2013, as cited in Atkins & Wallace, 2013, p. 131).In summary, LET grants the researcher to make an original contribution to the knowledge by generating a theory that improves peoples' learning within their learning space.Often such action research leads to the production of a case study such as the current study.Golby suggested that case studies enable researchers to observe [a phenomenon] closely and "to render it in some way intelligible" (Golby, 1994, p. 27).The case study provides information about the particular and if compared to similar studies may permit what Cooper (2016) refers to as metaanalysis.
Action research does have its critics; for example, Berg and Eikeland (2008) argued that those involved in action research can be influenced by the state of themselves and their institutions, stating that the action researcher's observations can be "filtered" and "framed" by both the context and the researcher (Berg & Eikeland, 2008, p. 201).It is not the intention of the researcher to provide a commentary on action research processes; however, the above provides a framework in relation to the underlying principles associated with the research philosophy of this particular study.
The current research examines the possible value of Neuro-linguistic Programming, as a coaching philosophy, in enhancing engagement with learning, and indirectly achievement, of boys in a specific post-16 education setting.Whilst the research tools used may appear limited, the purpose of the study was to initiate an initial exploration of aspects of NLP coaching in an educational context and to examine to what extent, if any, that NLP may enhance engagement with learning.It is hoped that this piece of micro-research will provide a platform for further research of coaching in the area of boys' engagement with learning at the post-16 level.

Background -Secondary Education and Boys' Underachievement
There is a suggestion that lack of engagement with learning "correlates" to underachievement.Most definitions of underachievement classify this phenomenon as lower academic performance than would be expected on measures of potential (Balduf, 2009).This is encapsulated by the definition provided by Reis and McCoach (2000), "Underachievers are students who exhibit a severe discrepancy between expected achievement (as measured by standardized achievement test scores or cognitive or intellectual ability assessments) and actual achievement (as measured by class grades and teacher evaluations)" (Reis & McCoach, 2000, p. 157).
As Smith and Wilhelm (2002) pointed out, if a measure of potential can be used, then it is more likely to highlight individuals who are doing reasonably well (in terms of five General Certificate of Secondary Education qualifications, grades A* to C), but are not achieving their potential, thus their hidden underachievement is exposed.GCSE qualifications have recently been amended by the UK Department of Education and A* to C grades are now expressed as Grade 9 through to Grade 4 (Jadhav, 2018).
Whilst this article does not specifically focus on the sociological links to both social class and education, it is important to acknowledge that engagement with learning has links to both.In the seminal work of Willis (1977), "Learning to Labour," Willis explored the perceptions of working class "lads" to education.Whilst dated, this study still has relevance to the understanding of engagement with learning of (working class) boys and is inextricably linked to social class and social class perceptions of the value of education.Links to engagement with learning can also been seen through the work of Bourdieu and Passeron (1990) and the notion of cultural capital.In short, cultural capital refers to the capital an individual, family or social group may possess, not in terms of money, but in terms of their understanding of and engagement with the prevailing social system and their ability to engage positively with that system.More recently, Stahl (2016) examined this further through the lens of a neo-Liberal social system and the (negative) effects on (working class) boys.
To this end, Western governments subscribe to a "sense of crisis" in relation to boys' underachievement in education (Titus, 2004, p. 145).Descriptions of boys' underachievement are used to generate factual accounts, and this leads to specific beliefs becoming authorized as scientific knowledge (Titus, 2004).Roberts (2012) highlights that research has tended to operate with discrete dualisms, one of the most popular being boys and girls.Gorard, Rees, and Salisbury (2001) found the gender achievement differential stood at around 10 percentage points in favor of girls.This has continued with girls outperforming boys by 10.7% in 2014 and by 9.9% in 2015 (DfE [Department for Education] National Statistics, 2016).However, the gender debate surrounding educational underachievement can be misleading, since not all boys are doing badly and not all girls are doing well.Epstein, Elwood, Hey, and Maw (1998) and Francis (2010) noted that the unsophisticated use of data can lead to generalizations that provide a distorted view of reality.
Numerous strategies have been suggested as ways to address boys' underachievement.A study by McGuinn (2000) highlighted the benefits of computers in engaging underachieving boys and encouraging communication and contributing to heightened self-EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019 confidence in English.Myhill (2002) noted differential participation rates between boys and girls in whole class interactions; explicit in her observations was the notion that underachieving boys must be encouraged to participate and engage more in lessons.Alternatively, Mills and Keddie (2010), drawing upon the Australian experience of boys' underachievement, explain how underachievement can be challenged through the utilization of male mentors and engagement with a more masculinized curricula.However, this does appear to homogenize boys' learning styles.
Much of the research has tended to focus on boys in secondary education.Less evidence is readily available regarding the transition to post-16 education and boys' engagement with their learning in the post-16 environment.The current study examines the possible benefits of utilizing specific coaching strategies associated with NLP to enhance boys' engagement with learning in post-16 education.

Coaching: A Brief Overview
Arguably, coaching has its foundation in Ancient Greek philosophy associated with Socrates and Socratic questioning.Socrates' questioning technique required his students (coachees) to fully reflect upon and consider questions posed; to pursue thought in many directions.Coaching, in its modern format, may be considered to have started when Gorby (1937) conducted research into the impact of coaching in a specific manufacturing context.Towards the latter part of the 20 th Century coaching became associated, although not exclusively, with the humanistic school of psychology (see Rogers, 2004).The 21 st Century has seen coaching delineated into a plethora of schools of thought (Ives, 2008).Coaching may be conducted either on an individual or group basis, depending on need (Brown & Grant, 2010).Coaching approaches may then be broadly divided into three strands: firstly, directive or non-directive; secondly, personal development or goal-focused; and thirdly, therapeutic or performance driven (Ives, 2008).Grant and Stober (2006) provided a typology of nine forms of coaching that ranged from humanistic coaching to systemic coaching, with each offering distinct and unique possibilities for coaching.
Coaching employs a range of communication skills such as (active) listening, questioning and clarifying.This enables the coachee to reflect upon their current position; to then consider various opportunities and discuss (with their coach) different pathways which will enable them to achieve their desired outcomes or goals (Cox, Bachkirova, & Clutterbuck, 2014).Jackson (2004) noted that coaching is an intrinsically reflective process in which processes such as reflecting, reframing and questioning permit the coachee to understand her or his current situation.This then enables the coachee to consider ways in which they can initiate change and provides opportunities for consideration as to how the situation may be in the future and the changes necessary in order to achieve this.Successful coaching is achieved through the application of models such as Whitmore's (2009Whitmore's ( , 2014) ) GROW model.Models enable coaches to ensure that they include all stages in the coaching process.Models, in practice, help coaches shape what they do, which in turn, leads to enabling the outcomes the coachee wishes to achieve (Wall, 2016;Wall & Perrin, 2015).As Wilson (2011) noted, the best models provide useful structures for coachee development if handled competently.It is essential that coaching conversations meet the needs of the coachee, not the coach; therefore it is important that the coach is not confined solely to a rigid model (Robins, 2017).Whilst models are helpful, there is some evidence suggesting that coaching models may not be as important for success as assumed; rather, it is the relationship between the coach and coachee (De Haan, Culpin, & Curd, 2011).Coaching appears to have a positive impact on the quality of life for the participating individual.Those who experience coaching have increased insight into the self; they experience enhanced wellbeing and are likely to achieve their goals (Grant, 2015).Stout-Rostron (2014) provided an excellent overview of coaching principles and coaching models that is, unfortunately, beyond the remit of the current study.
Coaching is seen as a useful intervention in educational organizations.Coaching can be a helpful, reflective process for students, teachers, middle leaders and senior leaders (Cappella et al., 2012;Nieuwerburgh, 2013).In 2010, The National College for Leadership of Schools and Children's Services (NCSL) in England deemed coaching to be so valuable in educational contexts that they embraced a coaching philosophy for all involved in state education and particularly for future leaders (Lofthouse, Leat, & Towler, 2010).It was this shift into educational coaching philosophy, the findings of Kerr (2010aKerr ( , 2010b)), and the desire for change driven by the school leadership team, which provided the springboard for the current study.
A range of definitions exist in relation to coaching; however, in the context of the current study coaching is defined as "A collaborative, solution focused, result-orientated and systematic process in which the coach facilitates the enhancement of work performance, life experience, self-directed learning and person growth of the coachee" (Grant, 1999, as cited in Association for Coaching, n.d.).It was against this backdrop that I was drawn to investigate Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) as a potential coaching philosophy to support boys in post-16 (further) education with specific reference to enhancing engagement with their learning.NLP can be associated with various psychological schools of thought.The clearest links are behaviorism -conditioned behavior (see Skinner, 1938), neobehaviorism -observational learning (see Bandura, 1977), and humanistic psychology -fully functioning person (see Rogers, 2004).NLP can be seen to adopt an eclectic "theoretical" approach to coaching.

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP): Some Underlying Principles
NLP is a construct that postulates the importance of modeling excellent behaviors.These highly effective patterns of behavior are related to positive self-perception and selfbelief and are associated with the use of positive language.Bandler and Grinder (1975) discuss the meta-model of language in which they argue that human language is used as a way of representing the world, or mental map of reality.A range of strategies that combine the use of active listening, utilizing positive language and reframing contexts and concepts can be used to explore representations of the world and the mental map of reality of an individual (Bandler & Grinder, 1975;Grinder & Bandler, 1976).The NLP coach (practitioner) is in a position to draw upon a number of strategies (see Dilts, 1990;Freeth, 2017;Hoobyar & Dotz, 2013;O'Connor, 2013;O'Connor & Seymour, 1995) to enable the individual to achieve his or her potential.The application of these strategies can be tailor-made to meet the engagement and developmental needs of individuals.To explain NLP, in detail, is beyond the scope of this paper.However, a comprehensive review of strategies, particularly those related to the study can be found in Bandler and Benson (2016), Bartkowiak (2011), Churches and Terry (2007), and McCartney and McCartney (2014).

Criticisms of Neuro-linguistic Programming
NLP has been criticized in reviews of research by commentators such as Diamantopoulos, Wooley, and Spann (2008), Heap (1988, 1998), and Singer and Lalich (1996).They argued that elements central to NLP are scientifically dubious, lacking in validity and/or reliability, and are ineffectual.A recent bulletin published by the British Psychological Society (BPS) suggests the principles associated with NLP and the supporting research are "mythical," stating that "NLP is full of false claims that sound scientific-ish,…..A forensic trawl through all the claims made in NLP programs found that the overwhelming majority are piffle."(Jarrett, 2016, n.p.).More general criticisms of NLP are proposed by Beyerstein (2001) and Rosen (1997), who, respectively, referred to NLP as "pseudoscience" and "psychobabble"; moreover, they questioned the validity and scientific rigor of the claims made by proponents of NLP.Criticisms of NLP and associated research methodologies are refuted by commentators such as Carey, Churches, Hutchinson, Jones, and Tosey (2009) who cite, among other things, that methodological problems and a lack of understanding of NLP by some researchers have led to misinformed outcomes.
Whilst the British Psychological Society dismiss NLP as a credible psychological phenomenon, it should be acknowledged that psychology contains a range of schools of thought that, at various times, have been discredited to varying degrees and then, later, acknowledged as relevant and helpful (see Gross & McIlveen, 2000;Hayes, 2002).
Given the above it should also be noted that advocates of NLP state that NLP is not scientific or theory-oriented (Bandler, as cited in Singer & Lalich, 1996).Jacobson states that NLP is "not a theory or concept….. it is a model" (Jacobson, 2002, p. 53).A theory is best described as hypothetical speculation, whereas a model can be seen as an observable exemplification of a theory or concept.A model has more rigor than a theory as a model is testable and observable.It is for this reason that the researcher deemed NLP a suitable coaching philosophy and program for this specific education study and context.

Specific NLP "Techniques of Change" used in this study
Techniques for Change are utilized to enable individuals to modify their belief systems for the better; this, in turn, leads to the positive modification of behavior.However, it is important that individuals appreciate that the Techniques of Change selected to challenge beliefs and perceptions of a given situation may, in the first instance, cause some "psychological discomfort."For example, an individual may find it unsettling or unnerving to state specific affirmations to themselves, or to close their eyes and visualize themselves performing a certain activity.These unsettling feelings will subside as the individual takes greater control of their particular situation.Given the nature of the current study, the researcher selected six specific Techniques of Change that it was felt would be the most beneficial in enhancing engagement with learning.These Techniques of Change were Affirmations, Reframing, Pattern Breaking, Anchors, Visualization, and the use of a written journal.
Affirmations can help individuals achieve their desired goals.An affirmation is "a pithy statement of an outcome that assumes that it is possible and achievable and keeps your mind focused on it" (O'Connor, 2013, p. 21).Affirmations are like belief statements; they should always be positive and carefully phrased (O'Connor, 2013).
Reframing is a process in which a problematic behavior is separated from the positive intention of the internal program or "part" that is responsible for the behavior.This can be likened to stimulus-response (see Skinner, 1938).However, the response, in some cases, is maladaptive leading to problematic behaviors.New choices of behavior are established by having the "part" responsible for the old behavior take responsibility for implementing other behaviors that satisfy the same positive intention but do not have the problematic byproducts of the original program (Dilts, 1990, p. 219).As individuals seek positive change, the "part" adopts behaviors associated with observational learning (see Bandura, 1977); this enables him or her to satisfy the positive intention.In humanistic terms, the individual becomes fully-functioning (see Rogers, 2004) as the "part" takes (positive) responsibility and this permits positive development and growth.In summary, when meaning changes, responses and behavior also change (Bellow, 2014;O'Connor, 2013).
The notion of pattern breaking (pattern interrupts) is to intervene and move somebody from an intensely negative state to a more neutral state.Pattern breaking is abrupt and immediate; it is one of the most powerful ways of breaking state (O'Connor, 2013).Pattern interrupts can be utilized to get an individual out of a (negative) stuck state and enable her or him to achieve a positive (desired) state.
An anchor relates to a process of associating an internal response with some external trigger (similar to classical conditioning) so that the response may be quickly, and sometimes covertly, re-accessed (Dilts, 1990).Anchors can occur naturally or be set up intentionally (O'Connor & Seymour, 1993).An anchor is a trigger -visual, auditory gustatory, olfactory or kinesthetic -that links with an action or emotional state (O'Connor & Lages, 2004).Positive anchors are an important part of a person's life as anchors contribute to building habits and help individuals become consciously competent (Bellow, 2014;O'Connor, 2013) and ultimately unconsciously competent.
Visualization is sometimes referred to as mental imagery or imaging.Visualization is the process of seeing images in your mind (O'Connor & Seymour, 1993).The aim of visualization is to bring to mind a powerful performance and use this to achieve a specified outcome (Gray, 2000).Many top sports-people visualize a particular technique in their mind's eye.Experts in their field, such as Andy Murry in tennis, or Usain Bolt in athletics, practice their technique over and over again, both practically, but also mentally.
A journal takes the form of diary or may comprise simple reflective notes.This relatively simple technique relies on the individual being honest with himself or herself.Ideally, the entries should be completed on a daily basis.The journal records events as experienced by the individual.The individual reflects upon his or her performance, their thoughts and psychological factors.The document provides a window on experience that is detached thus permitting rational analysis (Gray, 2000).

Methodology
Given research work relating to NLP to educational contexts (see Bandler & Benson, 2016;Grinder, 1991;Jacobson, 2002;Kök, 2013), the researcher felt that examining the possible value of some of the broader principles and influencing strategies associated with NLP and Techniques of Change could benefit engagement with learning for male students in a post-16 educational context.This appears to be an area of limited research.
The researcher felt it was important to foreground (see Hakemulder, 2004) the voices of the students.In doing so, this research provides insight into ways of enhancing learning through the voices of the students, rather than those of their teachers, school or other stakeholders.The rich, meaningful and contextualized data in relation to enhancing engagement with learning is foregrounded by the boys' voices and can serve to support teachers and educational coaches to broaden their understanding of these young people and to enable their teachers and coaches to act on these voices.

The intervention
The researcher completed an exploratory intervention study that was conducted through the use of quantitative and qualitative research tools using an action research case study design.All of the Year 13 male students studying at the College were made aware of this research study and those interested volunteered (self-selected) to participate in the study.In total 10 participants engaged with this case study in investigating the broader principles associated with NLP.Self-selection could compromise objectivity; however, participants were requested to adopt an independent approach in relation to what they would learn and apply from NLP in their specific educational context.This impartiality, the researcher felt, would serve to provide greater validity.
A case study group of male students, who self-selected to participate in the study, was created in a post-16 educational setting at a rural community college.The purpose of this case study was to explore six Techniques of Change associated with NLP in relation to engagement with learning.As a group, the participants and teacher-researcher explored (via six workshops incorporating NLP coaching seminars and the completion of accompanying workbooks) the principles of NLP and the value of specific techniques (affirmations, reframing, pattern breaking, anchoring, visualization and/or a journal) when applied to this specific educational context.The workshops involved didactic teaching, dialogic discussion and practical application of these specific NLP Techniques of Change led by an Advanced Master Practitioner.Whilst judgements of competence grounded in a short training program are difficult; confidence, of all those involved, was high.Thereafter, the participants applied techniques of change independently to both class-based and home-based learning.Adherence to these techniques was not measured but the participants and teacherresearcher met briefly on a fortnightly basis in order to discuss any issues that arose.

Intervention research methodology
As a single-site, multi-voiced intervention, this study was created to capture experiences and perceptions of those taking part.The case study group comprised male students completing the final year of their post-16 education; all were taking A level examinations.The group consisted of 10 students aged between 17 and 19 years who, with parental consent, participated over a period of 12 weeks (one term).The use of a case study could introduce bias as students participating knew the teacher-researcher at some level.This may have led to participants displaying subject effects and demand characteristics which could have contaminated the study.However, all were asked to be honest in the way they reported their experiences in relation to this research.
Research that involves human participants raises complex ethical, legal, social and political issues.There are three objectives in (education) research ethics.The first, to protect participants; the second, to ensure the research is conducted in a way that serves the EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019 interests of all stakeholders; the third, to manage risk, protect confidentiality and ensure informed consent (Hammersley & Traianou, 2012).It is against these criteria that this study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the College.This research study utilized a pragmatic (see Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2015) mixedmethods approach in the research process using both quantitative and qualitative research tools.Initially, students completed a pre-intervention questionnaire.The "Engagement with Learning Profile" (ELP) questionnaire (see Appendix A) consists of 15 questions designed to elicit how "positive" or "negative" a student is about their engagement with learning and learning experience in this specific post-16 educational setting and to, indirectly, suggest if an individual may be at risk of underachieving.The internal reliability of the questionnaire was found to be good (Cronbach's α = .79).A test-retest reliability score of r = .81suggests that the ELP questionnaire is a reliable psychometric device.Approximately one week after the 12-week intervention ceased, students completed the ELP questionnaire (postintervention).
Participants then took part in a recorded semi-structured interview in order to gauge their perceptions about effects, if any, of NLP on their engagement with learning experiences.The semi-structured interviews lasted between 24 minutes and 47 minutes (dependent upon the depth of responses from the various participants).All of the semistructured interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed.Responses were explored through a form of thematic analysis (see Guest, MacQueen, & Namey, 2012) and presented, in what the researcher terms as "positions of consensus."Positions of consensus reflect synthesized viewpoints, presented on the part of participants, be they negative or positive in relation to the value of Techniques of Change associated with NLP in this specific context.The outcomes of this form of analysis enabled the teacher-researcher to express, by foregrounding the voices of the participants, how strategies associated with NLP may, or may not, help a specific age range of male students engage with learning in a specific post-16 educational setting.

Questionnaire
The research outcomes were divided into two strands.The first strand was linked to the statistical analysis of the completed ELP questionnaire.This ELP questionnaire was successful as a research tool as it is valid and has good internal reliability.The questionnaire focus group scores were not distributed normally (Shapiro-Wilk .012);therefore, a related-samples Mann-Whitney test was conducted but failed to reveal a significant difference between the pre-intervention (Mdn = 60) and post-intervention (Mdn = 61.5)U = 101, p = .478.In short, analysis of the ELP questionnaire suggests that the NLP intervention did not demonstrate a measureable impact on engagement with learning of the 10 male Year 13 students in their post-16 educational setting.The ELP questionnaire does not relate directly to NLP and specific techniques of change.However, the purpose of this instrument was to measure the difference, if any, of their engagement with learning pre-intervention and post-intervention.The use of sample sizes of less than 30 participants in quantitative research is problematic, especially when making assertions relating to research findings (see Cohen, Mannion, & Morrison, 2017).It is clear that a further, multi-faceted, study consisting of a larger sample is essential.

Semi-structured interview
The second strand of this research required participants to describe and evaluate their perceptions as to the usefulness of the applied NLP techniques in their very specific learning situations through responding to a semi-structured interview.Whilst all these males were members of a specific post-16 cohort; their approaches to learning and learning styles could also be very different to each other; thus the implementation of the NLP techniques would be different to complement their learning styles.That said, all were conversant with these specific NLP Techniques of Change which they had learned about via the NLP seminars, coaching workbooks and discussions utilized during coaching sessions.The content of the workbooks was completed by the students; then the students and coach clarified and discussed the specific entries.Students were then free to apply these strategies in ways that they felt would best benefit or enhance their learning needs.Whilst qualitative analysis is extremely complex and would be enhanced by a more thorough thematic analysis utilizing first, second and third order themes, the researcher considered that the use of "positions of consensus" provided answers in generalized terms, thus making findings more accessible in a report such as this.Where candor is required, responses are interpreted in more detail.No other learning interventions were being implemented by the College, as a whole, at the time of the study's application.To ensure that the analysis of data was systematic, a former colleague with research experience was consulted in order to provide the necessary balance and checks regarding the interpretation of the data and the conclusions drawn.

Affirmation
The evidence suggests, for the most part, that affirmations have a positive influence on engagement with learning.Two comments that capture the consensus of the group and explain how affirmations help maintain positive thoughts in relation to learning are as follows: Another participant explained how affirmations produce a calming effect and reduce anxiety:

I use [affirmations] quite a lot to reinforce I should not be worried about it [to reduce levels of anxiety about learning]. Affirmations help me calm down and stop me being negative. It's good to repeat, 'Don't worry about it.' (Participant 02)
He continued by acknowledging: 'Don't' and 'worry' are two negative words and can imply a negative connotation.However, together, such words [or phrases] remind me not to worry.(Participant 02) Whilst this respondent acknowledged the notion of the use of a double-negative, he indicated that, for him, this leads to positivity and ultimately positive intent.Another participant explained how affirmations aid his motivation and engagement:

I like telling myself positive things about myself. I give myself evidence for being positive. This motivates me as such to try and do things even though I may think they are impossible. I use affirmations to help me reach my goal; even though deep down I may question my abilities. I know affirmations will help me get there! (Participant 05)
However, one participant indicated his reservations about the use of affirmations.He felt that affirmations could be damaging in that they can create a climate for disappointment.
Affirmations are not for me.I find affirmations are a way of setting myself up for disappointment.I feel it's better to think that this or that is not going to happen this time.….I'm sure it works for some people.The amount of belief you put in into it makes it possible; but, I think it can be so damaging when things don't happen.(Participant 03) All of the participants, bar one, noted the positive value in the use of affirmations.All felt that by affirming, in the positive, engagement with learning was enhanced.In short, there was consensus relating to the positive, very helpful impact of affirmations on learning.

Reframing
Reframing is a Technique of Change that was viewed positively by the participants.There was consensus relating to the beneficial effects of reframing when engaged in learning.

I have used reframing when exams and learning has not gone well. I use reframing to get back to an equilibrium. (Participant 03)
This was reinforced by a similar comment but with some reservation: Reframing definitely worked for me.However, I am aware that at times I focus on some things negatively and reframing becomes more challenging.(Participant 02) One participant noted how they did not use reframing "particularly much," stating:

I never use reframing particularly much. I tend to look at the negative thing and change it to a positive thing through [positive] self-talk. Rather than reframing I prefer to change it. (Participant 01)
This is interesting as this participant perceived self-talk as critical to positive change and said they "prefer to change it."This would be seen by NLP coaches as a form of reframing; the "change" is the reframe.A specific example of reframing was used in relation to the subject of Physics:

[I use reframing] when there is a question in an exam that I don't understand; it doesn't make sense. You step back and think about it in a different way. I see [the subject] Physics as reframing half the time. You have to think about [Physics] and then reframe ideas to make sense of the subject. I use reframing to help my learning. (Participant 05)
This participant indicates that aspects of Physics, especially the theory, is abstract; however, reframing the abstract into the practical enables him to "dissociate" from the theory, place the idea into a context, "flip it" and then access the ideas.One comment that exemplifies the broader perceptions of the focus group related to reframing is as follows:

I use reframing to think of my emotions in a different way. I don't like feeling sad or negative. I think about why I'm not at my best and then change it. (Participant 06)
Overall, the consensus was that reframing was perceived by participants as a helpful Technique of Change in relation to engagement with learning as, by changing the perception of an event, it becomes possible to modify and change the outcome of that event.

Pattern Breaking
Pattern breaking enhanced participants engagement with their learning by helping them ignore negativity.Comments that encapsulate the position of consensus within the group were as follows: If I do something that I'm not particularly pleased with then I will take the time to make sure that I don't do it again.However, it was observed that pattern breaking can be exigent as one is challenged to break long established habits: [Pattern breaking] as a concept is very good; but as a process it can be hard to do.You have habits and habits can be hard to break.(Participant 04) One specific example to which my attention was drawn related to the recounting of a story and the application of the pattern breaking technique in this participant's very specific context.

I heard the story of a boy taking 24 A levels. He would only study each subject for 10 minutes at any one time. I used this strategy of breaking my studies and found it very helpful… I found [learning] more enjoyable [engaging]. I was more positive about my work. (Participant 08)
This is a highly refined form of pattern breaking as it becomes difficult for any negativity to become established with regards to learning as the student continually moves from learning in one subject area to learning in another.Short, intensive learning sessions may aid engagement with learning for some students.

EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019
One comment that summarizes the position of consensus of the focus group as a whole, in relation to pattern breaking, is as follows: Pattern breaking can help you progress.You see patterns of behavior that are unhelpful and find a way to break them.(Participant 03)

Anchors
Anchors appeared to provide a solid foundation to support students with their engagement with learning.Two comments that capture the consensus of the group are as follows: One participant noted that it is important to use anchors wisely and to be fully aware of yourself as a learner.
A concern is that people may hold on to an anchor in the hope that things will be like that again.You must be in the present to initiate change.The present creates the future.(Participant 03) The group's position of consensus is best summarized in the following comment:

Visualization
The consensus was that visualization was a positive Technique of Change.Although it was described variously.
I think about the examination.I know there are questions that I will have not seen before.I find it helps to visualize this.I visualize results day a lot.I visualize going to uni [versity]; enjoying my time there.I'll visualize the lectures.I visualize finishing university actually.It's not because I want to finish university, it's because it's a point on my path.Positions of consensus as to the value of visualization when engaging with learning were generally positive although the reasoning behind perceptions were somewhat mixed.In summary, visualization appeared to be very helpful to the majority, but less so to the minority.This may reflect specific tendencies associated with being a visual, aural or kinesthetic learner (see Bandler & Benson, 2016;Churches & Terry, 2007).

Written journal
The least successful of the Techniques of Change was the journal.It was evident that participants were much less inclined to engage with this strategy.The consensus was that the journal was a less helpful technique to enhance their learning.The aforementioned observations are summarized in Table 1.

Discussion
This study demonstrates that coaching can be conducted on a group basis as indicated by Brown and Grant (2010); although it should be noted that the participants engaged in this NLP coaching study on an individual basis as well as members of a broader group.The boys were members of a coaching group for the purpose of understanding Techniques of Change; but they operated at an individual level when implementing Techniques of Change that they identified as meeting their specific engagement with learning needs.The boys' engaged with this coaching strategy to aid personal development; a strand of coaching identified by Ives (2008).It was evident in this specific context that the boys reflected upon their current position and considered opportunities and pathways to initiate change, which supports the assertions by Cox et al. (2014) relating to the process of coaching.This specific study utilized aspects of a specific model of coaching (see Wall, 2016) deemed essential for successful coaching.This enabled the coachees to shape their future engagement with learning in the positive.However, it is noted that, as De Haan et al. (2011) suggested, the relationship between coach and coachee(s) also contributed to engagement with the coaching model (NLP) and the coaching process that was utilized to some extent.The boys gained increased insight into their self (see Grant, 2015) and spoke positively about the experience both during the semi-structured interviews and later, following completion of the study.The consensus of the group is best reflected in the following comment: I thought process was enjoyable and interesting…, it has increased my understanding of how people learn and the best way to achieve higher results.It helped having the formalized [NLP] tutorials and workbooks.(Participant 01) In the specific context of this study, the boys reviewed their personal approach to learning.Some NLP techniques were found to be favored more than others.The qualitative responses relating to engagement with learning suggest NLP, variously, contributed to the development of more positive engagement with learning.In the context of the current study, Techniques of Change encouraged enhanced engagement with learning for the participants.In the majority of cases a refinement of self-perception, with regards to learning, was evident leading to enhanced engagement with learning both in the classroom and elsewhere.This suggests the "rewiring" (see Kudliskis & Burden, 2009) of certain cognitive processes that leads to more positive engagement with learning and, in turn, to a positive sense of self.It is not possible to state, categorically, that this is the case for the current study; but, these observations provide a basis for further research into the possible effectiveness of NLP and engagement with learning.
The Techniques of Change used in this coaching intervention and case study were multifaceted (affirmations, reframing, pattern breaking, anchors, visualization, and journals) thus making it challenging to clearly identify which specific technique contributed to positive change.It may have been possible to see the same results from only implementing one of the interventions.However, all participants spoke in terms of applying a range of these Techniques of Change, to enhance their engagement with learning, albeit to differing degrees.
An overarching premise in NLP states that modeling the behaviors of successful individuals, in whatever context, will lead to success.The foregrounded voices of the boys in this study are the voices of those students who employed NLP Techniques of Change to EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019 support their learning.These techniques, to varying extents, appear to enhance engagement with learning.The limited findings of this study suggest that boys who underachieve but are prepared to embrace and adopt the learning philosophy and Techniques of Change utilized, like those in the current study, will experience enhanced engagement with learning.
By way of a basic comparison, data collected by the College indicates that, on average, boys for the whole Year 13 cohort achieved 208 APS (Average Points Score) in their A levels; whilst boys from the research group of the current study achieved 221 APS (South Dartmoor Community College, 2014).The small sample provides little concrete, statistical evidence that NLP enhanced the participant students' engagement with learning; indeed, the sample was so small that meaningful statistical comparison would be purely speculative.Furthermore, it is often those who are more engaged in their education to start with that volunteer to participate in research studies such as this.Therefore, they may perform better irrespective of the intervention.Nonetheless, the majority of the participants in the focus group indicated that Techniques of Change contributed to an enhanced engagement with their learning.However, it must be acknowledged that the placebo effect (see Beecher, 1955) cannot be totally ruled out either.
As Jackson (2010) argued, the notion of some boys as underachievers is often unsophisticated and one-dimensional; whereas the picture in reality is complex.Whilst data, as in the current study, is predominantly analyzed thematically, the individual responses are idiosyncratic; thus indicating a myriad of reasons as to how boys engage with their learning.Reality is complex!Francis (2010) indicated that generalizations, in relation to boys' underachievement, produce a distorted view of reality.In some ways the current research is no different in that the researcher drew upon analytical generalization in order to examine lack of engagement within a specific group, at a specific time, and at a specific location, with learning.
McGuinn (2000) and Myhill (2002) both spoke, but with slightly different emphasis, of the need to encourage boys to communicate with their peers and teachers more in lessons.By engaging more purposefully in communication, boys, it was suggested, were more likely to achieve.This notion is reflected, to some extent, in the results of the current research.The participants effectively communicated with their peers, with their teachers, and with themselves.Greater self-awareness through the application of affirmations, reframing, pattern breaking, anchoring, and visualization appears to help generate an enhanced engagement with learning.
The findings of the current study, in relation to engagement with learning, suggest that coaching can enhance the educational experience of boys.This supports current thinking in the field of education coaching.Concepts such as peer coaching (Robbins, 2015); on being, having and doing (Garnell & Burn, 2013); mental toughness (Nieuwerburgh, 2012), and, positive mindset (Dweck, 2017) either, implicitly or explicitly, refer to engagement as being essential to successful learning.
The current study was grounded within a broad action research philosophy.The teacher-as-researcher was able to gain insight into how some boys may be encouraged to engage with their education more purposefully by utilizing aspects of NLP to aid their engagement with learning.The study adopted the form of action research called Living EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019 Educational Theory (LET), in that these limited findings offer critical insight into the status quo of coaching in educational practice (see Barry, 2013, as cited in Atkins & Wallace, 2013).
The use of analytical generalization (see Yin, 1989) enabled the Sixth Form Management Team and the researcher to identify positions of consensus emerging from the data.Whilst positions of consensus may provide limited insight, the advantage of analytical generalization is that the research engages with the innermost thoughts, feelings and experiences of the participants, presenting a review of the participants' perceptions of their experiences using their synthesized words.As stated previously, the participants were asked to be honest in the way that they reported their experiences.The researcher had no reason to think that the participants had done otherwise.
Finally, it can often appear that research is "done" or "applied" to the participants.The intention of this case study was to explore the potential of NLP Techniques of Change to enhance engagement with learning and to foreground the voices of the participants.To this end, the current case study engaged the boys within the research process; it foregrounded their voices; and formed a qualitative research perspective that highlighted, albeit to a limited extent, the potential of NLP Techniques of Change in enhancing engagement with learning for boys in post-16 education.

Conclusion
Educational action research provides insight into educational issues such as coaching and engagement with learning for boys in post-16 education.Such insight may not have been so evident when utilizing a positivist research philosophy.
As stated previously, there continues to be a limited theoretical framework in relation to NLP; and that which exists predominantly as grounded in "soft" research or referred to in grey literature (magazines and periodicals).The researcher elected to examine NLP Techniques of Change (an element of a specific coaching model) as a critical observer and to understand whether or not specific aspects of NLP positively contribute to engagement with learning.
This exploratory study fills a void in the literature by investigating whether or not strategies and techniques associated with NLP could influence engagement with learning for Year 13 males in a post-16 educational setting.The outcome of the ELP questionnaire suggested that there was no statistical difference, post intervention.However, the qualitative data provides helpful information about the thoughts and reflections of a small group of boys in relation to NLP Techniques of Change, and how such techniques enhance engagement with learning.Those comprising the group could be deemed as "high achievers."They already subscribed to a positive learning philosophy and ethic, and the intervention may have simply consolidated their existing viewpoints.That said, the outcomes associated with the semi-structured interviews provide some speculative evidence that NLP Techniques of Change can enhance engagement with learning for Year 13 males in generally, and also diminish underachievement.
It should be noted that the participants may have been more "receptive" to this concept as they were "working with" a known teacher-researcher.The findings may reflect unintentional demand characteristics of the teacher-researcher, or indeed, subject effects on behalf of the participants.The teacher-researcher endeavored to be systematic in the EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019 intervention and research process.It is difficult to fully dismiss the placebo effect; however, the responses from the participants are deemed to be an honest reflection of experiences and perceptions.
Drawing upon elements of the definition of the Association for Coaching (n.d.), the coaching program utilized in the current study was a collaborative, solution-focused, resultorientated and systematic process in which the coach facilitated the enhancement and selfdirected learning and person growth of the coachees (students).
Whilst the findings are limited, this exploratory study provides another lens through which to examine the learning experience for boys in post-16 education.This research suggests, albeit on a small scale, the possible potential of NLP strategies and techniques (as a coaching model) for engaging in learning for Year 13 males.

Application in schools
Whilst the findings in this research are somewhat limited, some progressive schools may wish to implement the NLP philosophy relating to Techniques of Change in order to aid engagement with learning in the post-16 educational setting.Similar programs could be considered for use in secondary education.The value of such interventions could then be appraised via further educational research in this specific context.At a practical level, implementation of strategies such as Techniques of Change are relatively straightforward.Teachers and students (irrespective of age) could be trained in the use of these very specific techniques associated with NLP.Initial training, via an NLP trainer, could be given to a group of teachers and students who become lead practitioners within a school.These lead practitioners could then trickle-down, and indeed, trickle-up the core philosophy associated with NLP Techniques of Change; thus making such training more costeffective and engagement with learning more effective.
A valuable starting point for schools could be the purchase of the recently released book by Bandler and Benson (2016), entitles Teaching Excellence: The Definitive guide to NLP Teaching and Learning.This book introduces, in detail, the underlying practices and principles associated with NLP within the specific context of education.

Appendix Engagement with Learning Profile
The statements below express opposites relating to engagement with learning.Between the statements are seven empty circles represented by the letters A, B, C, D (Not Sure), E, F, G. (Please ask me or your teacher to explain any of these instructions that you do not understand.) These letters represent (equal) the extent to which (how much) you would agree with one or the other of the opposing statements.Please "blob out" () the one circle which you feel most truly represents your feelings.This is not a test.There are no right or wrong answers, so please think carefully and try to select the appropriate circle as accurately, and as honestly as you can.
use affirmations; they're good for keeping negative thoughts out of my head and making sure I'm creating positive [thoughts].If you are doing something [like learning] and you continually affirm….it becomes easier to do it.(Participant 04) I like affirmations; they're a positive message to send to yourself.I do like telling myself about what I can do.'I can do these things'.(Participant 08) I guess pattern breaking makes me stop and think about what I've done.(Participant 01) If something has not gone quite right I'll break the moment….I stop and pause and think about the situation and put it into perspective.(Participant 06) In many cases participants spoke of how pattern breaking helped them in their specific situation: [Pattern breaking] definitely works if I'm stressed.I stop what I'm doing that makes me stressed.It can also work in getting me more engaged with stuff [learning].By changing the pattern of my behavior it can help make things more clear.(Participant 02) I sometimes do a 'failed' paper again.I have a different mindset to that of the original exam; I break the pattern.(Participant 09) In relation to exams it was noted: [Sometimes in exams] I move onto the next question and then I go back.I have a positive frame of mind and self-talk [has made the challenging question] easier.(Participant 08) like powerful anchors because they can help you get through.[I use anchors] to help me remember a time when I was enthusiastic.This can put you in the right frame of mind and enable you to overcome things.(Participant 03) I use sounds an awful lot [for anchoring].For example, there are certain [music] tracks that trigger a [positive] mindset in me.….With Math, in particular, I will listen to a certain album.The music is quite psychedelic.It doesn't distract me from [my learning]; I'm aware of the vocals but it blends into the background really, really well; in an ambient way.I've now [anchored] this album to having a positive mindset in Math.(Participant 01) Another example of an anchor in action was provided by this participant: I regularly think back to past events; things that have made me happy in the past.I'm currently thinking back [anchoring] to my AS's as I prepare for my final A levels.I use the past experience to motivate me to work hard.I try to relive the [positive] past event as much as I can.(Participant 05) (Participant 05) Taking a different, but related, viewpoint another participant said: I use visualization…, If I'm aiming for something I guess it helps 'seeing' myself having achieved that.(Participant 04) One participant highlighted what he saw as the relationship between affirmation, anchors and visualization.Visualization links to affirmation and anchors, What you visualize becomes an affirmation for the future.'I'm going to do well at this; I can see myself getting an A*.' (Participant 03) One participant noted that he utilized visualization less readily: I haven't really used visualization; I'm not really sure why.It doesn't really appeal to me.I can picture myself getting an exam certificate; but, this doesn't really help me.(Participant 01)

I
haven't done one; but, a journal could have some merit.It feels like a lot of effort though.(Participant 04) I don't know if a [journal] is helpful; I've not kept a journal.It feels, not wrong, but a bit odd… I do know people who do it and it works for them.For me it's not effective.(Participant 02) The view of the focus group overall is best summarized in the following comment: I never felt [a journal] helped me particularly.You have the moment of writing it down; but, reflecting on it and looking back doesn't seem to work for me.(Participant 01)

Finally, please do
not talk to anyone whilst you are completing this task as I would like to understand your true feelings

Table 1 .
Summary of Student Perceptions of Techniques of Change to Enhance Learning EDUPIJ • Volume 8 • Issue 1 • 2019