Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Drug Excretion in Human Breast Milk

Principles, Pharmacokinetics and Projected Consequences

  • Published:
Clinical Pharmacokinetics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

The excretion of drugs in human breast milk is reviewed with regard to milk production, composition, feeding patterns and mechanisms of drug transfer into milk. Fundamental principles of breast milk excretion are used to construct a pharmacokinetic approach useful for the study of most drugs. An infant-modulated 3-compartment open model is proposed for drug distribution and elimination in the breast feeding woman. Milk/plasma drug concentration ratios are projected on the basis of pH partitioning. While some studies confirm these projections, other studies demonstrate a need to consider additional factors such as lipid solubility and protein binding characteristics of a drug in milk.

Data are lacking for most drugs and hence dosing via milk or risk to the infant remains speculative. Very few pharmacokinetic studies of both milk and infant plasma were found. A review of selected drug classes cites available information as a basis for future studies. Few drugs are contraindicated in breast feeding women, but supportive data for either proscriptions or permissive statements are often lacking. A neglected but potentially serious infant risk — impaired behaviour and development — is discussed from the standpoint of emerging animal data.

Conceptually valid and comprehensive studies on drug excretion in breast milk are needed if this valuable nutrient for infants is to be made available safely.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aaes-Jorgensen, T. and Jorgensen, A.: Studies of excretion in rabbit milk after administration of carbon-14 labelled amitriptyline and nortriptyline. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 227: 294–301 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abramowicz, M. (Ed): Drugs in Breast Milk. Medical Letter 16: 25–27 (1974).

  • Abramowicz, M. (Ed) Update: Drugs in Breast Milk. Medical Letter 21: 21–24 (1979).

  • Addy, H.A.: The breast feeding of twins: An exploratory study. Journal of Tropical Pediatric and Environmental Child Health 21: 231 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alary, J.D.; Guay, P. and Brodeur, J.: Effect of phenobarbital pretreatment on the metabolism of DDT in the rat and the bovine. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 18: 457–468 (1971).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition: Commentary on breast feeding and infant formulas, including proposed standards for formulas. Pediatrics 57: 278 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition: Breast feeding: A commentary. Pediatrics 62: 591 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  • Amin-Zaki, L.; Elhassani, S.; Majeed, M.A.; Clarkson, T.W.; Doherty, R.A. and Greenwood, M.: Intra-uterine methyl mercury poisoning in Iraq. Pediatrics 54: 587–595 (1974a).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amin-Zaki, L.; Elhassani, S.; Majeed, M.A.; Clarkson, T.W.; Doherty, R.A. and Greenwood, M.R.: Studies of infants postnatally exposed to methyl mercury. Journal of Pediatrics 85: 81–84 (1974b).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amin-Zaki, L.; Elhassani, S.; Majeed, M.A.; Clarkson, T.W.; Doherty, R.A.; Greenwood, M.R. and Giovanoli-Jakubczak, T.: Perinatal methyl mercury poisoning in Iraq. American Journal of Diseases of Children 130: 1070–1076 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ammon, H.V. and Phillips, S.F.: Inhibition of colonic water and electrolyte absorption by fatty acids in man. Gastroenterology 65: 744–749 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ammon, H.V. and Phillips, S.F.: Inhibition of ileal water absorption by intraluminal fatty acids. Influence of chain length, hydroxylation, and conjugation of fatty acids. Journal of Clinical Investigation 53: 205–210 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ammon, H.V.; Thomas, P.J. and Phillips, S.F.: Effects of oleic and ricinoleic acids on net jejunal water and electrolyte movement. Journal of Clinical Investigation 53: 374–379 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ananth, J.: Side effects in the neonate from psychotropic agents excreted through breast-feeding. American Journal of Psychiatry 135: 801–805 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P.O.: Drugs and breast feeding. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 11: 208–223 (1977).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P. and Salter, F.: Propranolol therapy during pregnancy and lactation. American Journal of Cardiology 37: 325 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Applebaum, R.M.: The obstetrician’s approach to the breasts and breast feeding. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 14: 98 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aranda, J.V.; Sitar, D.S.; Parsons, W.D.; Loughnan, P.M. and Neiras, A.H.: Pharmacokinetic aspects of theophylline in premature newborns. New England Journal of Medicine 295: 413–416 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arena, J.M.: Drugs and breast feeding. Clinical Pediatrics 5: 472 (1966).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, S.A.; Bryan, M.H. and Anderson, G.H.: Human milk: Difference in nitrogen concentration in milk from mothers of term and premature infants. Journal of Pediatrics 93: 67–69 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Avery, G.S.: Appendix A, Drug data information; in Avery (Ed): Drug Treatment, pp.888–896 (Adis Press, Sydney; Publishing Sciences Group, Acton, Mass.; Churchill-Livingstone, Edinburgh 1976a).

    Google Scholar 

  • Avery, G.S.: Appendix E: Guide to drug dosage in renal failure; in Avery (Ed) Drug Treatment, pp.964–975 (Adis Press, Sydney; Publishing Sciences Group, Acton, Mass.; Churchill-Livingstone, Edinburgh 1976b).

    Google Scholar 

  • Avner, S.E.: β-Adrenergic bronchodilators. Pediatric Clinics of North America 22: 129–139 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ayd, F.J. (Ed): Excretion of psychotropic drugs in human breast milk. International Drug Therapy Newsletter. Vol. VIII: 33–40 (1973).

  • Bagnell, P.C. and Ellenberger, H.A.: Obstructive jaundice due to a chlorinated hydrocarbon in breast milk. Canadian Medical Association Journal 117: 1047–1048 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bakir, F.; Damluji, S.F.; Amin-Zaki, L.; Murtadha, M.; Khalidi, A.; Al-Kawi, N.Y.; Tikriti, S.; Dhahir, H.I.; Clarkson, T.W.; Smith, J.C. and Doherty, R.A.: Methyl mercury poisoning in Iraq. Science 181: 230–241 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bakken, A.F. and Seip, M.: Insecticides in human breast milk. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 65: 535–539 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, W.F.: Clinical study of senna administration to nursing mothers: Assessment of effects on infant bowel habits. Canadian Medical Association Journal 89: 566–568 (1963).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bambel, C.E. and Hunter, R.E.: Effect of dicoumarol on the nursing infant. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 59: 1153–1159 (1950).

    Google Scholar 

  • Banerjee, N.C.; Miller, G.E. and Stowe, C.M.: Excretion of aminopyrine and its metabolites into cows milk. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 10: 604–612 (1967).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barness, L.A.: Breast milk for all. New England Journal of Medicine 297(17): 939–941 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrie, H.; Martin, E. and Ansell, C.: Milks for babies. Lancet 2: 1330 (1975).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartig, D. and Cohon, M.: Excretion of drugs in human milk. Hospital Formulary Management 4: 26–27 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baty, J.D.; Breckenridge, A.; Lewis, P.J.; Orme, M.; Serlin, M.J. and Sibeon, R.G.: May mothers taking warfarin breast feed their infants? British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 3: 969 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, J.H.; Pape, B.; Zajicek, J. and Groshong, T.: Propranolol in human plasma and breast milk. American Journal of Cardiology 43: 860–862 (1979).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beer, A.E. and Billingham, R.E.: Immunologic benefits and hazards of milk in maternal perinatal relationship. Annals of Internal Medicine 83: 865–871 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, K. and McKenzie, H.A.: β-Lactoglobulins. Nature 204: 1275 (1964).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, C.M. Jr. and Lee, C.: Isoniazid and acetylisoniazid disposition in human milk, saliva, and plasma. Federal Proceedings (Part I) Vol. 39(3), No. 1044, 426 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  • Binder, H.J.: Pharmacology of laxatives. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 17: 355–367 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, R.G.; Applewhite, T.H.; Kohler, G.C. and Goldblatt, L.A.: Chromatographic analysis of seed oils. Fatty acid composition of castor oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 39: 513–517 (1962).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Binkiewicz, A.; Robinson, M.J. and Senior, B.: Pseudo-Cushing syndrome caused by alcohol in breast milk. Journal of Pediatrics 93: 965 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bisdom, C.J.W.: Alcohol and nicotine poisoning in nurslings. Maandschrift voor Kindergeneeskunde 6: 332 (1937).

    Google Scholar 

  • Blacker, K.H.; Weinstein, B.J. and Ellman, G.L.: Mother’s milk and chlorpromazine. American Journal of Psychiatry 119: 178–179 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaikley, J.B.; Clarke, S.; MacKeith, R. and Ogden, K.M.: Breastfeeding: Factors affecting success. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Empire 60: 657–669 (1953).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, S.P.: Metabolism of gold during lactation. Arthritis and Rheumatism 16: 777–778 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blinick, G.; Inturrisi, C.E.; Jerez, E. and Wallach, R.C.: Methadone assays in pregnant women and progeny. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 121: 617–621 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, C.A. and Woodham, D.W.: The cumulation and disappearance of mirex residues. II. In milk and tissues of cows fed two concentrations of the insecticide in their diet. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 14: 25–31 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bostock, J.: Evolutionary approaches to infant care. Lancet 1: 1033–1035 (1962).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, R.: Passage of diazepam and desmethyldiazepam into breast milk. Arzneimittel-Forschung 26: 454–457 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breimer, D.D. and Baars, A.J.: Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of anthraquinone laxatives. Pharmacology 14(Suppl. 1): 30–47 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brew, K.: Secretion of α-lactalbumin into milk and its relevance to the organization and control of lactose synthetase. Nature 222: 671–672 (1969).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bright-Asare, P. and Binder, H.J.: Stimulation of colonic secretion of water and electrolytes by hydroxy fatty acids. Gastroenterology 64: 81–88 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brodbeck, U. and Ebner, K.E.: Resolution of a soluble lactose syntherase into two protein components and solublimation of microsomal lactose syntherase. Journal of Biological Chemistry 241: 762–764 (1966).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brodbeck, U.; Denton, W.L.; Tanahashi, N. and Ebner, K.E.: The isolation and identification of the β protein of lactose as α-lactalbumin. Journal of Biological Chemistry 242: 1391–1397 (1967).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brodie, B.B.: Physico-chemical factors in drug absorption; in Absorption and Distribution of Drugs (Livingstone, Edinburgh-London 1964).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodie, B.B. and Hogben, C.A.M.: Some physico-chemical factors in drug action. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 9: 345–380 (1957).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R.D. and Manno, J.E.: ESTRIP, a BASIC Computer Program for obtaining initial polyexponential parameter estimates. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 67(12): 1687–1691 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown-Grant, K.: The iodide concentrating mechanism of the mammary gland. Journal of Physiology (London) 135: 644–654 (1957).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, R.A.; Eaton, C.J.; Koeff, S.T. and Kinkel, A.W.: The breast milk excretion of mefenamic acid. Current Therapeutic Research 10: 592–596 (1968).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, R.A.; Eaton, C.J.; Koeff, S.T. and Kinkel, A.W.: The breast milk excretion of flufenamic acid. Current Therapeutic Research 11: 533–538 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bucher, T. and Redetzki, H.: Eine spezifische-photometrische Restimmung von Athylalkohol auf fermentativem Wege. Klinische Wochenschrift 29: 615 (1951).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byck, R.: Drugs and the treatment of psychiatric disorder; in Goodman and Gilman (Eds) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, pp. 152–200 (Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Castell, D.O. and Levine, S.M.: Lower esophageal sphincter response to gastric neutralization. A new mechanism for treatment of heartburn with antacids. Annals of Internal Medicine 74: 223–227 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Catz, C.S. and Giacoia, G.P.: Drugs and breast milk. Pediatric Clinics of North America 19: 151–166 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, V.; Tse, T.F. and Wong, V.: Transfer of digoxin across the placenta and into breast milk. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (London) 85: 605–609 (1978).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, F-C.; Green, D.E.; Forrest, I.S.; Kaplan, J.N.; Winship-Ball, A. and Brande, M.: The passage of 14C-D-9-tetrahydrocannabinol into the milk of lactating squirrel monkeys. Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology 15: 303–317 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clayman, C.B.: Evaluation of cimetidine (Tagamet). An antagonist of hydrochloric acid secretion. Journal of the American Medical Association 238: 1289–1290 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clyde, D.F. and Shute, G.T.: Transfer of pyrimethamine in human milk. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, December: 277–287 (1956).

  • Cobo, E.: Effect of different doses of ethanol on the milk-ejecting reflex in lactating women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 115: 817–819 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cobrinik, R.W.; Hood, R.T. and Chusid, E.: The effect of maternal narcotic addiction on the newborn infant. Pediatrics 24: 288–304 (1959).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, A.P. and Hailey, D.M.: Diazepam and active metabolite in breast milk and their transfer to the neonate. Archives of Disease in Childhood (London) 50: 741–742 (1975).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conney, A.H.: Pharmacological implications of microsomal enzyme induction. Pharmacological Reviews 19: 317–366 (1967).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coradello, H.: The excretion of antiepileptic drugs in breast milk. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 85: 695–697 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cote, C.J.; Kenepp, N.B.; Reed, S.B. and Strobel, G.E.: Trace concentrations of halothane in human breast milk. British Journal of Anaesthesia 48: 541–543 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cueto, C. Jr. and Hayes, W.J. Jr.: Effect of phbarbital on the metabolism of dieldrin. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 7: 481 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, A.S.: Morbidity in breast-fed and artificially fed infants. Journal of Pediatrics 90: 726 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curley, A. and Kimbrough, R.: Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in plasma and milk of pregnant and lactating women. Archives of Environmental Health 18: 156–164 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curry, S.H.; Riddall, D.; Gordon, J.S.; Simpson, P.; Binns, T.B.; Rondel, R.K. and McMartin, C.: Disposition of glutethimide in man. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 12: 849–857 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cuthbertson, W.F.: Essential fatty acid requirements in infancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 29: 559 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, J.C.; Goodyear, S.; Paperiello, C.J. and Matuszek, J.M.: Iodine-129 levels in milk and water near a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant. Health Physics 26: 333–342 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Darlington, R.C.: Laxative products; in Handbook of Nonprescription Drugs, pp.36–53 (American Pharmaceutical Association, Washington, D.C. 1977).

    Google Scholar 

  • Davson, H. and Danielli, J.F.: The Permeability of Natural Membranes, 2nd Ed. (Cambridge University Press, London 1943).

    Google Scholar 

  • Deb, A.K. and Cama, H R.: Studies in human lactation. British Journal of Nutrition 16: 65 (1962).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterle, W.; Wagner, J. and Faigle, J.W.: Binding of chlorthalidone (Hygroton) to blood components in man. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 10: 37–42 (1976).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dillon, H.K.; Wilson, D.J. and Schaffner, W.: Lead concentrations in human milk. American Journal of Diseases of Children 128: 491–492 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dujovne, C.A. and Shoeman, D.W.: Toxicity of a hepatotoxic laxative preparation in tissue culture and excretion in bile in man. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 13: 602–608 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durham, W.F.: Body burdens of pesticides in man. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 160: 183–195 (1969).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dyment, P.G.; Hebertson, L.M.; Decker, W.J.; Gomes, E.D. and Wiseman, J.S.: Relationship between levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in human milk and serum. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 6: 449–452 (1971a).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dyment, P.G.; Hebertson, L.M.; Gomes, E.D.; Wiseman, J.S. and Hornabrook, R.W.: Absence of polychlorinated biphenyls in human milk and serum from Texas and human milk from New Guinea. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 6: 532–534 (1971b).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert, C.D.; Sloan, M.V.; Duncan, J.R. and Hurley, L.S.: Zinc binding: a difference between human and bovine milk. Science 195: 789–790 (1977).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eckstein, H.B. and Jack, B.: Breast feeding and anticoagulant therapy. Lancet 1: 672–673 (1970).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edozien, J.C.; Khan, R.M.A. and Washien, C.I.: Protein deficiency in man: Results of a Nigerian village study. Journal of Nutrition 106: 312 (1976).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emery, W.B.; Canolty, N.L.; Aitchison, J.M. and Dunkley, W.L.: Influence of sampling on fatty acid composition of human milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31: 1127–1130 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erkkola, R. and Kanto, J.: Diazepam and breast-feeding. Lancet 1: 1235–1236 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eschenhof, V.E. and Rieder, J: Untersuchungen uber das schicksal des antidepressivums amitriptylin im organismus der ratte und des menschen. Arzneimittel-Forschung 19: 957–966 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, P.R. and MacKeith, R.C.: Infant Feeding and Feeding Difficulties, 3rd Ed., p. 71 (Churchill-Livingstone, London 1958).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahim, M.S. and King, T.M.: Effect of phenobarbital on lactation and the nursing neonate. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 101: 1103–1108 (1968).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fantus, B. and Dyniewicz, J.W.: Phenolphthalein administration to nursing women. American Journal of Digestive Diseases 3: 184–185 (1936).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Drug Administration Panel on OTC Laxatives, Antidiarrheals, Antiemetics and Emetic Drugs. Federal Register 40: 12924–12933 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fehily, L.: Human milk intoxication due to B, avitaminosis. British Medical Journal 2: 590–592 (1944).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, B.B.; Wilson, D.J. and Schaffner, W.: Determination of nicotine concentrations in human milk. American Journal of Diseases of Children 130: 837–839 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fingl, E.: Laxatives and cathartics; in Goodman and Gilman (Eds) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, pp.976–986 (Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Finley, J.P.; Waxman, M.B.; Wong, P.Y. and Lickrish, G.M.: Digoxin excretion in human milk. Journal of Pediatrics 94: 339–340 (1979).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, T.L.; Lin, T.H.; Novick, W.J.; Rondish, I.M.; Bocher, C.A. and Van Loon, E.J.: Spectrophotometric method for the determination of chlorpromazinc and chlorpromazine sulphoxide in biological fluids. Journal of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry 1: 263–273 (1959).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fomon, S.J.: Infant Nutrition, 2nd Ed. (W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia 1974).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fouts, J.R. and Hart, L.G.: Hepatic drug metabolism in the perinatal period. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 123: 245–251 (1965).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friebel, H. and Walkowiak, L.: The detection of purgative drugs containing anthraquinone in human milk. Archives fur Gynakologie 179: 123–135 (1951).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fries, G.F.; Marrow, G.S. Jr; Lester, J.W. and Gordon, C.H.: Effect of microsomal enzyme inducing drugs on DDT and dieldrin elimination from cows. Journal of Dairy Science 54: 364–368 (1971).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frontali, G.: Sull importanze clinica des passaglo d’alcohol attraverso la glandula mammaria. Revista di Clinica Pediatrica 13: 693 (1915).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, M. and Takabutake, E.: Mercury levels in human maternal and neonatal blood, hair and milk. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 18: 205–209 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gadacz, T.R.; Gaginella, T.S. and Phillips, S.F.: Inhibition of water absorption by ricinoleic acid. Evidence against hormonal mediation of the effect. American Journal of Digestive Diseases 21: 859–862 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaginella, T.S. and Bass, P.: Laxatives: An update on mechanisms of action. Life Sciences 23: 1001–1010 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaginella, T.S. and Phillips, S.F.: Ricinoleic acid (castor oil) alters intestinal surface structure. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 51: 6–12 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaginella, T.S.; Stewart, J.J.; Gullikson, G.W.; Olsen, W.A. and Bass, P.: Inhibition of small intestinal mucosal and smooth muscle cell function by ricinoleic acid and other surfactants. Life Sciences 16: 1595–1606 (1975a).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaginella, T.S.; Stewart, J.J.; Olsen, W.A. and Bass, P.: Actions of ricinoleic acid and structurally related fatty acids on the gastrointestinal tract. II. Effects on water and electrolyte absorption in vitro. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 195: 355–361 (1975b).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, J.D.; Yang, M.G.; Belo, P.S. and Wang, J.H.C.: Carbonmercury bond breakage in milk, cerebrum, liver and kidney of rats fed methyl mercury chloride. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 146: 190–193 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glenn, J.C. and Hansard, S.C.: Mammary iron transfer in lactating ewes. Journal of Animal Science 23: 905 (1964).

    Google Scholar 

  • Godding, E.W.: Therapeutics of laxative agents with special reference to the anthraquinones. Pharmacology 14 (Suppl. 1): 78–101 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gopalan, C.: Studies on lactation in poor Indian communities. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 4: 87 (1958).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gopalan, C. and Belavady, B.: Nutrition and Lactation. Federation Proceedings 20(1), Part 3 (1961).

  • Gostof, Homolka and Zelenka: Les substances deriv’ees du tromexane dans le lait matemel et leurs actions paradoxales sur la prothrombine. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift 30: 764–765 (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  • Govind-Rao, M.K.; Risser, N. and Perkins, E.G.: The incorporation of ricinoleic acid into rat lymph lipids. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 131: 1369–1372 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, H.J.; Burkhart, B. and Hobby, D.B.L.: Excretion of penicillin in human milk following parturition. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 51: 732–733 (1946).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenleaf, J.O. and Leonard, H.S.D.: Laxatives in the treatment of constipation in pregnant and breast-feeding mothers. Practitioner 210: 259–263 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruner, O.: Der Gerichtsmedizinische Alkoholnachwies, 2nd Ed., p. 44 (Carl Heymanns Verlag KG, Cologne 1967).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustafson, P.E. and Miller, J.E.: The significance of 137Cs in man and his diet. Health Physics 16: 167–183 (1969).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie, H.A.; Picciano, M.F. and Sheehe, D.: Fatty acid patterns of human milk. Journal of Pediatrics 90: 39–41 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagyard, S.B.; Brown, W.H.; Stull, J.W.; Whiting, F.M. and Kemberling, S.R.: DDT and DDE content of human milk in Arizona. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 9: 169–172 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, B.: Changing composition of human milk and early development of appetite control. Lancet 1: 779–781 (April 5, 1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hambraeus, L.: Proprietary milk versus human breast milk in infant feeding. A critical appraisal from the nutritional point of view. Pediatric Clinics of North America 24(1): 17–36 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hambraeus, L.; Forsum, E. and Lonnerdal, B.: Nutritional aspects of breast milk versus cow’s milk formula; in McFarlane, Hambraeus and Hanson (Eds) Food and Immunology. Symposia of the Swedish Nutrition Foundation XIII. (Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm 1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanwell, A. and Linzell, J.L.: Elevation of the cardiac output in the rat by prolactin and growth hormone. Journal of Endocrinology 53: 57–58 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanwell, A. and Linzell, J.L.: The effects of engorgement with milk and of suckling on mammary blood flow in the rat. Journal of Physiology 233: 111–125 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann, P.E. and Kulski, J.K.: Changes in the composition of the mammary secretion of women after abrupt termination of breast feeding. Journal of Physiology 275: 1–11 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Havelka, J.; Hejzlar, M.; Popov, V.; Viktorinova, D. and Prochazka, J.: Excretion of chloramphenicol in human milk. Chemotherapy 13: 204–211 (1968).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hawthorne, J.C.; Ford, J H.; Loftis, C.D. and Markin, G.P.: Mirex in milk from southeastern United States. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 11: 238–240 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, W.J.: Review of the metabolism of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides especially in mammals. Annual Review of Pharmacology 5: 27–52 (1965).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, W.J.: Dosage relationships associated with DDT in milk. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 38: 19–28 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, M.: Suppressing lactation with oral diuretics. Lancet 1: 1353–1354 (1961).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, C.O. and Linzell, J.L.: Some conditions affecting the blood flow through the perfused mammary giand, with special reference to the action of adrenaline. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 36: 159–175 (1951).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herting, D.C. and Drury, E.E.: Thin-layer chromatography with precoated alumina sheets II. Application to tocopherols. Journal of Chromatography 30: 502–505 (1967).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hervada, A.R.; Feit, E. and Sagraves, R.: Drugs in breast milk. Perinatal Care 2: 19–25 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoh, T.K.: Severe hypoprothrombinaemic bleeding in the breast fed young infants. Singapore Medical Journal 10: 43–49 (1969).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hollman, K.H.: Cytology and fine structure of the mammary gland; in Larson and Smith (Eds) Lactation: A Comprehensive Treatise. I. The Mammary Gland/Development and Maintenance (Academic Press, New York/London 1974).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hornabrook, R.W.; Dyment, P.G.; Gomes, E D. and Wiseman, J.S.: DDT residues in human milk from New Guinea natives. Medical Journal of Australia 1: 1297–1300 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horning, M.G.; Nowlin, J.; Hickert, P.; Stilwell, W.G. and Hill, R.M.: Identification of drugs and drug metabolites in breast milk by gas chromatography — mass spectrometry; in Galli (Ed) Dietary Lipids and Postnatal Development, pp.257–269 (Raven Press, New York 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  • Horning, M.G.; Stillwell, W.G.; Nowlin, J.; Lertratanangkoon, K.; Stillwell, R.N. and Hill, R.M.: Identification and quantification of drugs and drug metabolites in human breast milk using GC-MS-COM methods. Modern Problems in Paediatrics 15: 73–79 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hytten, F.E.: Clinical and chemical studies in human lactation. British Medical Journal 1: 175–182 (1954).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hytten, F.E. and Leitch, I.: The Physiology of Human Pregnancy, 2nd Ed. (Blackworld Scientific Publications, Oxford 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  • Illingworth, R.S.: Abnormal substances excreted in human milk. Practitioner 171: 533–538 (1953).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Innes, I.R. and Nickerson, M.: Atropine, scopolamine, and related antimuscarinic drugs; in Goodman and Gilman (Eds) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, pp. 514–532 (Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Insull, W.; Hirsch, J.; James, T. and Ahrens, E.H.: The fatty acids of human milk. II. Alterations produced by manipulation of caloric balance and exchange of dietary fats. Journal of Clinical Investigation 38: 443 (1959).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Irvin, R.R.: Caffeine in the breast milk of coffee and tea drinkers. Medical Journal and Record 124: 37–38 (1926).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jack, D.; Harris, D.M. and Middleton, E., Jr: Adrenergic agents; in Middleton, Reed and Ellis (Eds) Allergy Principles and Practice, pp. 404–433 (Mosby, St. Louis 1978).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, M.H.: Some aspects of cell permeability to weak electrolytes. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 8: 30 (1940).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jakubovic, A.; Tait, R.M. and McGeer, P.L.: Excretion of THC and its metabolites in ewes’ milk. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 28: 38–43 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jan, J.; Komar, M. and Milohnoja, M.: Excretion of some pure PCB isomers in milk of cows. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 13: 313–315 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jelliffe, D.B.: The secotrant — a possible new category in early childhood. Journal of Pediatrics 74: 808–810 (1969).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jelliffe, D.B. and Jelliffe, E.F.P.: The effects of starvation on the function of the family and of society; in Blix and Vahlqvist (Eds) Nutrition and Relief Operations in Times of Disaster (Almqvist and Wilsells, Uppsala 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jelliffe, D.B. and Jelliffe, E.F.P.: Alleged inadequacies of human milk: Common misapprehensions and errors. Clinical Pediatrics 16: 1140–1144 (1977a).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jelliffe, D.B. and Jellifle, E.F.P.: Current concepts on nutrition. New England Journal of Medicine 297: 912–915 (1977b).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jelliffe, D.B. and Jelliffe, E.F.P.: Human Milk in the Modern World (Oxford University Press, London 1977c).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jelliffe, D.B. and Jelliffe, E.F.P.: The volume and composition of human milk in poorly nourished communities — a review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31: 492–515 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johannson, I.; Korkman, N. and Nelson, N.J.: Studies on udder evacuation in dairy cows. I. The rise in fat percentage during milking. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica 2: 43–81 (1952).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johns, D.G.; Rutherford, L.D.; Keighton, P.C. and Vogel, C.L.: Secretion of methotrexate into human milk. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 112: 978–980 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jusko, W.J. and Pliszezuk, A.: Analysis of theophylline in biological fluids by HPLC; in Dupont Liquid Chromatography Applications Report (DuPont Instruments, Wilmington, Delaware 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Juul, S.: Fenemalforgittning via modermaelken? Uneskrift for Laeger 131: 2257–2258 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadlec, G.J.; Ha, L.T.; Jarboe, C.H.; Richards, D.R. and Karibo, J.M.: Theophylline half-life in infants and young children. Annals of Allergy 40: 303–310 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, H.L. and Kerber, J.D.: Sampling improvements in atomic absorption spectroscopy. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 48: 434–437 (1971).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaneko, S.; Sato, T. and Suzuki, K.: The levels of anticonvulsants in breast milk. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 7: 624–629 (1979).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karpow, S.; Gotz, V. and Lauper, R.D.: Cimetidine. Journal of the American Medical Association 239: 402 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, F. and Duncan, B.R.: Entry of prednisone into human milk. Archives of Disease in Childhood 50: 894–896 (1975a).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, F. and Duncan, B.R.: Entry of prednisone into human milk. New England Journal of Medicine 293: 1154 (1975b).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, T.W.; Morre, D.J. and Cheetham, R.D.: Lactose synthesis by a Golgi apparatus fraction from rat mammary gland. Nature 228: 1105–1106 (1970).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kesanieim, Y.A.: Ethanol and acetaldehyde in the milk and penpheral blood of lactating women after ethanol administration. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth 81: 84–86 (1974).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khazen, K.; Mishkinsky, J.; Ben-David, M. and Sulmon, F.G.: Lactogenic effect of phenothiazine-like drugs. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 174: 428–441 (1968).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klaus, M.H. and Kennell, J.H.: Mother-infant bonding: The impact of early separation or loss on family development (Mosby, St. Louis 1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaus, M.H.; Kennell, J.H.; Plumb, N. and Zuehlke, S.: Human maternal behaviour at the first contact with her young. Pediatrics 46: 187–192 (1970).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klausner, H.A. and Dingell, J.V.: The metabolism and excretion of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat. Life Sciences 10: 49–59 (1971).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klemmer, H.W.; Budy, A.M.; Takahashi, W. and Haley, T.J.: Human tissue distribution of cyclodiene pesticides — Hawaii 1964-1973. Clinical Toxicology 11: 71–82 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, J.A.: Excretion of drugs in milk — A review. Journal of Pediatrics 66: 1068–1082 (1965).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, J.A.: Drugs in milk. Ross Timesaver Pediatric Currents 21: 28–32 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, J.A.: Effects on the infant of drug therapy in nursing mothers. Drug Therapy 3: 57–65 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, J.A.: Breast milk: A source of more than nutrition for the neonate. Clinical Toxicology 7: 69–82 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knutsson, P.G.: Exchange of sodium, potassium, chloride, and phosphate ions across the mammary epithelium in the goat. Annual Report Agricultural College of Sweden 30: 477–506 (1964).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knutsson, P.G. and Sperber, I.: Exchange of ions across mammary epithelium and the formation of milk; in Symposium on the use of radioisotopes in animal nutrition and physiology (SM-53/20, Prague 1964).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kojima, K. and Araki, T.: Recent status of organochlorine pesticide residues in foods in Japan. Environmental Quality and Safety 4: 74–79 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kolodny, R.C.; Jacobs, L.S. and Daughaday, W.H.: Mammary stimulation causes prolactin secretion in non-lactating women. Nature 238: 284–285 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kon, S.K. and Mawson, E.H.: Milk and mammary gland and its secretion. Medical Research Council Special Report Series 269 (1950).

  • Koup, J.R.: Principles of therapeutics; in Middleton, Reed and Ellis (Eds) Allergy, Principles and Practice, pp. 388–403 (Mosby, St. Louis 1978).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreek, M.J.; Schecter, A.; Gutjahr, C.L.; Bowen, D.; Field, F.; Pueenan, J. and Merkatz, I.: Analyses of methadone and other drugs in maternal and neonatal fluids: Use in evaluation of symptoms in a neonate of mother maintained on methadone. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 1: 409–419 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, M.: Insecticide residues in human milk. Journal of Pediatrics 80: 401–405 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, M.: General environmental contaminants occurring in milk; in Larson and Smith (Eds) Lactation: A Comprehensive Treatise, Vol. III: Nutrition and Biochemistry of Milk/Maintenance (Academic Press, New York 1974).

    Google Scholar 

  • Krzeminski, L.F.; Cox, B.L.; Perrel, P.N. and Schlitz, R.A.: Determination of methylprednisolone (Medrol) residues in milk by high pressure liquid chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 20: 970–972 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulski, J.K.; Hartmann, P.E.; Martin, J.D. and Smith, M.: Effects of bromocriptine mesylate on the composition of the mammary secretion in non-breast feeding women. Obstetrics and Gynecology 52: 38–42 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kwit, N.T. and Hatcher, R.A.: Excretion of drugs in milk. American Journal of Diseases of Children 49: 900–904 (1935).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ladinskaya, L.A.; Parfenov, Y.D.; Popov, D.K. and Fedorova, A.V.: 210Pb and 210Po content in air, water, foodstuffs and the human body. Archives of Environmental Health 27: 254–258 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, R.J.; Moore, R.M.; McLaren, G.D.; Barthel, W.F. and Landrigan, P.J.: Occupational lead poisoning, animal deaths, and environmental contamination at a scrap smelter. American Journal of Public Health 66: 548–552 (1976).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levitan, A.A. and Manion, J.C.: Propranolol therapy during pregnancy and lactation. American Journal of Cardiology 32: 247 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, M.; Granit, L. and Laufer, N.: Excretion of drugs in human milk. New England Journal of Medicine 294: 789 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindblad, B.S.; Ljungquist, M.; Meldin, G. and Rahimtoola, R.J.: Food and immunology: The composition and yield of human milk in developing countries. Proceedings of the Swedish Nutrition Symposium (1976).

  • Lindblad, B.S. and Rahimtoola, R.J.: A pilot study of the quality of human milk in a lower socio-economic group in Karachi, Pakistan. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 63: 125 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L.: Vasomotor nerve fibers to mammary glands of the cat and dog. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 35: 259–319 (1950).

    Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L.: The flow and composition of mammary gland lymph. Journal of Physiology (London) 153: 510–521 (1960).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L.: The effect of the very frequent milking and of oxytocin on the yield and composition of milk in fed and fasted goats. Journal of Physiology (London) 190: 333–346 (1967).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L.: Mammary blood flow and methods of identifying and measuring precursors of milk; in Larson and Smith (Eds) Lactation, Vol. 1, pp. 143–225 (Academic Press, New York 1974).

    Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L. and Peaker, M.: Intracellular concentrations of sodium, potassium and chloride in the lactating mammary gland and their relation to the secretory mechanism. Journal of Physiology (London) 216: 683–700 (1971a).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L. and Peaker, M.: The permeability of mammary ducts. Journal of Physiology (London) 216: 701–716 (1971b).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linzell, J.L. and Peaker, M.: Mechanism of milk secretion. Physiological Reviews 51: 564–597 (1971c).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipman, A.G.: Antimicrobial agents in breast milk. Modern Medicine, March 15: 89–90 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  • Livingston, S.: Treatment of epilepsy with diphenylhydantoin sodium. Postgraduate Medicine 201: 584–590 (1956).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombeck, I.; Kasperek, K.; Bonnermann, B.; Feinendegan, L.E. and Bremer, H.J.: Selenium content of human milk, cow’s milk and cow’s milk infant formulas. European Journal of Pediatrics 129: 139–145 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lonnerdal, B.; Forsum, E. and Hambraeus, L.: The protein content of human milk. Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Nutrition, Kyoto, Japan: Victroy-sha Press, p.698 (1976a).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lonnerdal, B.; Forsum, E. and Hambraeus, L.: A longitudinal study of the protein, nitrogen, and lactose contents of human milk from Swedish well-nourished mothers. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 29: 1127–1133 (1976b).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lonnerdal, B.; Forsum, E. and Hambraeus, L.: A longitudinal study of the protein content of human milk from wellnourished Swedish mothers. Nutrition and Metabolism 21 (Suppl. 1): 106–109 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loughnan, P.M.: Digoxin in human breast milk. Journal of Pediatrics 92: 1019–1020 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, A.; Gibbs, J.A.H.; Lyster, R.L.J. and Baum, J.D.: Creamatocrit: simple clinical technique for estimating fat concentration and energy value of human milk. British Medical Journal 1: 1018–1020 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luquet, F.M.; Goursaud, J. and Casalis, J.: La pollution des laits humains francais par les residues d’insecticides organochlores. Pathologie Biologie 23: 45–49 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luquet, F.M.; Goursaud, J. and Gaudier, B.: Etude de la pollution des laits humains par les residues de pesticides. Pathologie Biologie 20: 137–143 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, M.A.: Ill-health and child abuse. Lancet 2: 317–319 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClanahan, B.J.; McClellan, R.D.; McDenny, J.R. and Bustard, L.K.: Symposium on radioisotopes in animals, nutrition and physiology. International Atomic Energy Agency Technical Report Series, Vienna 173: 88 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, S.A.; Selley, J.A. and Agnew, J.E.: Secretion of prednisolone into breast milk. Archives of Disease in Childhood 50: 894–896 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, A.V.P.; Loose, R. and Glen, A.I.M.: Labor and lithium. British Medical Journal 1: 878 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malven, P.V. and McMurtry, J.P.: Measurement of prolactin in milk by radioimmunoassay. Journal of Dairy Science 57: 411–415 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manes, J.D.; Fluckiger, H.B. and Schneider, D.L.: Chromatographic analysis of Vitamin K1. Application to infant formula products. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 20: 1130–1132 (1972).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maricq, L. and Molle, L: Recherches sur la determination de l’alcolemie par chromatographie gazeuse. Bulletin de L’Academie Royale de Medecine de Beigique 24: 199 (1959).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masuda, Y.; Kagawa, R. and Kuratsune, M.: Comparison of polychlorinated biphenyls in Yusho patients and ordinary persons. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 11: 213–216 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayo, C.C. and Schlicke, C.P.: Appearance of a barbiturate in human milk. Proceedings of the Staff Meetings of the Mayo Clinic 17: 87–88 (1942).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mee, J.M.L.: Rapid determination of β-hydroxybutyric acid in blood and milk by gas chromatography. Journal of Chromatography 101: 414–416 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mercier-Parot, L.: Disturbances in post-natal development of rats after maternal administration of cortisone during pregnancy or lactation. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadires des Seances de l’Academe des Sciences 240: 2259 (1955).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mes, J.; Davies, D.J. and Miles, W.: Traces of mirex in some Canadian human milk samples. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 19: 564–570 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G.E. and Stowe, C.M. Jr.: Influence of oxytocin on diffusion of sulfonamides from plasma into bovine milk. Journal of Dairy Science 50: 840–846 (1967).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J.K. and Swanson, E.W.: Some factors affecting iodine secretion in milk. Journal of Dairy Science 46: 927–932 (1963).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G.E.; Banerjee, N.C. and Stowe, C.M., Jr: Diffusion of certain weak organic acids and bases across the bovine mammary gland membrane after systemic administration. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 157: 245–253 (1967a).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G.E.; Banerjee, N.C. and Stowe, C.M. Jr.: Drug movement between bovine milk and plasma as affected by milk pH. Journal of Dairy Science 50: 1395–1403 (1967b).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G.E.; Peters, R.D.; Engebretsen, R.V. and Stowe, C.M.: Passage of pentobarbital and phenobarbital into bovine and caprine milk after systemic administration. Journal of Dairy Science 50: 769–772 (1967c).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, E.S. and Topper, Y.J.: Some ultrastructural effects of insulin hydrocortisone and prolactin on mammary gland expiants. Journal of Cell Biology 44: 310 (1970).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mirkin, B.L.: Diphenylhydantoin: Placental transport, fetal localization, neonatal metabolism and potential teratogenic effect. Journal of Pediatrics 78: 329–337 (1971).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, S.D.: Human milk: Yield, proximate principles and inorganic constituents. Aberdeen, Scotland: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau Technical Communication No. 18 (1952).

  • Mortimer, E.A., Jr: Drug toxicity from breast milk. Pediatrics 60: 780–781 (1977).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morton, R.K.: Microsomal particles of normal cow’s milk. Nature 171: 734–735 (1953).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mulley, B.A.; Parr, G.D.; Pau, W.K.; Rye, R.M.; Moulu, J.J. and Siddle, N.C.: Placental transfer of chlorthalidone and its elimination in maternal milk. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 13: 129–131 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murthy, G-K. and Rhea, U.S.: Cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese and zinc in evaporated milk, infant products, and human milk. Journal of Dairy Science 54: 1001–1005 (1971).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Musial, C.J.; Hutzinger, O.; Zitko, V. and Crocker, J.: Presence of PCB, DDE, and DDT in human milk in the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 12: 258–267 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neathery, M.W. and Miller, W.J.: Metabolism and toxicity of cadmium, mercury, and lead in animals: A review. Journal of Dairy Science 58: 1767–1781 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, B.L. and Nichols, V.N.: The biologic basis of lactation. Comprehensive Therapy 4: 63–70 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nims, B.; Macy, I.G.; Hunscher, H. and Brown, M.: Variation in the composition of milk at four hour intervals during the day and night. American Journal of Diseases of Children 43: 828 (1932a).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nims, B.; Macy, I.G.; Hunscher, H. and Brown, M.: Daily and monthly variations in milk components as observed in two successive lactation periods. American Journal of Diseases in Children 43: 1062 (1932b).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, T.E.: Excretion of drugs in human milk. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 31: 844–854 (1974).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, T.E.: Excretion of drugs in human milk. Nursing Digest, July/August 23–31 (1975).

  • Olszyna-Marzys, A.E.: Contaminants in human milk. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 67: 571–576 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orme, M.L.E.; Lewis, P.J.; de Swiet, M.; Serlin, M.J.; Sibeon, R.; Baty, J.D. and Breckenridge, A.M.: May mothers given warfarin breast-feed their infants? British Medical Journal 1: 1564–1565 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Overbach, A.M.: Part 3: Drugs that may cause fetal damage or cross into breast milk. R.N. 37 (Dec): 39–45 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pacifici, G.M. and Placidi, G.F.: Rapid and sensitive electron-capture gas chromatographic method for the determination of pinazepam and its metabolites in human plasma, urine and milk. Journal of Chromatography 135: 133–139 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panalaks, T.: A gas-chromatographic method for the determination of Vitamin D in fortified non-fat dried milk. Analyst 95: 862–867 (1970).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parolaro, D.; Sala, M. and Gori, E.: Effect of intracerebroven-tricular administration of morphine upon intestinal motility in rats and its antagonism with naloxone. European Journal of Pharmacology 46: 329–338 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, M.J.; Tilstone, W.J. and Reavey, P.: Diazepam and breast-feeding. Lancet 1: 542–543 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peaker, M.: Lactation: Some cardiovascular and metabolic consequences, and the mechanisms of lactose and ion secretion into milk. Ciba Foundation Symposium 45: 87–101 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peeters, G.; Coussens, R. and Sierens, G.: Physiology of the nerves in the bovine mammary gland. Archives Intemationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 79: 75–82 (1949).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pendleton, R.C. and Lloyd, R.D.: Forecasting 137Cs in humans resulting from 137Cs in reactor effluents. Health Physics 26: 351–358 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perlman, H.H.; Dannenberg, A.M. and Sokofoff, N.: The excretion of nicotine in breast milk and urine from cigarette smoking. Journal of the American Medical Association 120: 1003–1009 (1942).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pesendorfer, H.: Ruckstande von Organochlorpestiziden (DDT u.a.) und Polychlorierten Biphenylen (PCB’s) in der Mutter Milch. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 87: 732–736 (1975).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pfielsticker, K.: Pesticide in der Kinderemhrung. Monatsschrift fur Kinderheilkunde 121: 551–553 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  • Picciano, M.F. and Guthrie, H.A.: Copper, iron and zinc contents of mature human milk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 29: 242 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Picciano, F.; Guthrie, H.A. and Sheehe, D.M.: The cholesterol content of human milk. Clinical Pediatrics 17: 359–362 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pickles, V.R.: Blood flow estimations as indices of mammary activity. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth 60: 301–311 (1953).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piper, D.W. and Fenton, B.: pH stability and activity curves of pepsin with special reference to their clinical importance. Gut 6: 506–508 (1965).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Posner, A.C. et al.: Tetracycline in obstetric infections. Antibiotics Annual 1955–1956, p.345 (American Society for Microbiology, Ann Arbor 1956).

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, J.M. and Nestel, R.J.: The effect of dietary fatty acids and cholesterol on the milk lipids of lactating women and the plasma cholesterol of breast fed infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 29: 54 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pynnonen, S. and Sillanpaa, M.: Carbamazepine and mother’s milk. Lancet 2: 563 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pynnonen, S.; Kanto, J.; Sillanpaa, M. and Erkkola, R.: Carbamazepine: Placental transport, tissue concentrations in foetus and newbom, and level in milk. Acta Pharmacology and Toxicology 41: 244–253 (1977).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinby, G.E.; Armstrong, J.F. and Durham, W.F.: DDT in human milk. Nature 207: 726–728 (1965).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rainbow, K.A.: Magnesium sulfate and breast milk. Journal of the American Medical Association 146: 298 (1951).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rane, A.; Garle, M. and Sjoqvist, F.: Plasma disappearance of transplacentally transferred diphenylhydantoin in the newborn studied by mass fragmentography. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 15: 39–49 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Mammary excretion of sulphonamides. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 15: 139–148 (1958).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Mammary excretion of benzylpenicillin, erythromycin, and penethamate hydroiodide. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 16: 194–200 (1959).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Mammary excretion of antipyrine, ethanol, and urea. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2: 151–156 (1961).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: The mammary blood flow in the goat as measured by antipyrine absorption. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 4: 271–280 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: The mammary blood flow in the cow as measured by the antipyrine absorption method. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 6: 135–149 (1965).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Studies on the Mammary Excretion and Absorption of Drugs (Mortensen, Copenhagen 1966).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Active mammary excretion of N4-acetylated p-aminohippuri acid. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 10: 193–194 (1969a).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Active mammary excretion of N4-acetylated sulphanilamide. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 10: 402–403 (1969b).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: Excretion of drugs by milk; in Brodie and Gillette (Eds) Concepts in Biochemical Pharmacology (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F.: The mechanism of drug secretion into milk; in Galli (Ed) Dietary Lipids and Postnatal Development, pp. 231–245 (Raven Press, New York 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F. and Linzell, J.L.: The accuracy of the indicator absorption method of measuring mammary blood flow by the Fick principle. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 49: 219–225 (1964).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, F. and Linzell, J.L.: The acetylation of sulphanilamide by mammary tissue of lactating goats. Biochemical Pharmacology 16: 918–919 (1967).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Read, W.W.C.; Lutz, P.G. and Tashjian, A.: Human milk lipids. II. The influence of dietary carbohydrates and fat on the fatty acids of mature milk. A study in four ethnic groups. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17: 180 (1965).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Read, W.W.C. and Sarrif, A.: Human milk lipids. I. Changes in fatty acid composition of early colostrum. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17: 177 (1965).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rees, J.A.; Glass, R.C. and Spome, G.A.: Serum and breast milk concentrations of dothiepin. Practitioner 217: 686 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • Reineke, E.P.: Factors affecting the secretion of iodine into milk of lactating goats. Journal of Dairy Science 44: 937–942 (1961).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Resman, B.H.; Blumenthal, H P. and Jusko, W.J.: Breast milk distribution of theobromine from chocolate. Journal of Pediatrics 91: 477–480 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, M.: Relationship of mammary circulation and oxygen consumption to lactogenesis; in Lactogenesis, the Initiation of Milk Secretion at Parturition (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, M.; Linzell, J.L. and Rasmussen, F.: Comparison of four methods for measuring mammary blood flow in conscious goats. American Journal of Physiology 214: 1415–1424 (1968).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodin, J.A.G.: An Atlas of Histology (Oxford University Press, New York 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Risebrough, R.W.: In report of the Secretary’s Commission of pesticides and their relationship to environmental health. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, p.258 (1969).

  • Rivera, E.M. and Bern, H.A.: Influence of insulin on maintenance and secretory stimulation of mouse mammary tissues by hormones in organ culture. Endocrinology 69: 340–353 (1961).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J.J.; Lee, Y.C.; Dupont, J.A. and Charbonneau, C.F.: A screening method for determining nitrofuran drug residues in animal tissues. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 58: 1227–1231 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sack, J.; Amado, O. and Lunenfeld, B.: Thyroxine concentration in human milk. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 45: 171–173 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • St. John, L.E. and Lisk, D.J.: A feeding study with the herbicide. Kerb [N(1,1-dimethylpropynyl)-3.5-dichlorobenzamide] in the dairy cow. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 13: 433–435 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savage, E.P.; Tessari, J.D.; Malberg, J.W.; Wheeler, H.W. and Bagby, J.R.: A search for polychlorinated biphenyls in human milk in rural Colorado. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 9: 222–226 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schanker, L.S.: Passage of drugs across body membranes. Pharmacological Reviews 14: 501–530 (1962).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schanker, L.S.: Absorption of drugs from the gastrointestinal tract; in Brodie and Gillette (Eds) Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 9–24 (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schilf, E. and Wohinz, R.: Uber das Vorkommen von Coffein in der Frauenmilch nach GenuB von Kaffee. Archiv fuer Gynaekologie 134: 201–204 (1928).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schou, M. and Amdisen, A.: Lithium and pregnancy. III. Lithium ingestion by children breast-fed by women on lithium treatment. British Medical Journal 2: 138 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, H.A. and Nason, A.P.: Trace-element analysis. Clinical Chemistry 17: 461–474 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulte-Lobbert, F.S. and Bohm, G.: Determination of cadmium in human milk during lactation. Archives of Toxicology 37: 155–157 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schumacher, H.M.: Uber Coffeinausscheidung in die Frauenmilch. Medizinische Welt 10: 408–411 (1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sedgwick, J.P.: A preliminary report of the study of breast-feeding in Minneapolis. American Journal of Diseases of Children 21: 455 (1921).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shani (Mishkinsky), J.; Ziv, G.; Givant, Y.; Buchman, O. and Sulman, F.G.: Pharmacokinetic studies of triated perphenazine: Passage from blood to milk in cows and ewes. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 207: 44–56 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada, T. and Ugawa, M.: Induction of liver microsomal drug metabolism by polychlorinated biphenyls whose gas chromatographic profile having much in common, with that in human milk. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 19: 198–205 (1978).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shirkey, H.: Drug excretion in breast milk; in Avery (Ed) Drug Treatment 2nd ed, p. 113–116 (ADIS Press, Sydney and New York; Churchill Livingstone. Edinburgh 1980).

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, S.J.: Architecture and topography of biologic membranes. Hospital Practice 8: 81–90 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  • Siyali, D.S.: Polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzene and other organochlorine pesticides in human milk. Medical Journal of Australia 2: 815–818 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smadel, J.E.; Woodward, T.E.; Ley, H.L., Jr. and Lewthwaile, R.: Chloramphenicol (chloromycetin) in the treatment of tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus). Journal of Clinical Investigation 28: 1196–1215 (1949).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smals, A.G.; Kloppenborg, P.W.; Njo, K.T.; Knoben, J.M. and Ruland, G.M.: Alcohol induced Cushingoid syndrome. British Medical Journal 2: 1298 (1976).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sollmann, T.: A Manual of Pharmacology, 8th Ed. (W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1957).

    Google Scholar 

  • Somogyi, A. and Gugler, R.: Cimetidine excretion into breast milk. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 7: 627–629 (1979).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, J.C. and Vidor, G.I.: Thyrotoxicosis induced by iodine contamination of foods — a common unrecognized condition? British Medical Journal 1: 372–375 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, J.J.; Weisbrodt, N.W. and Burks, T.F.: Central and peripheral actions of morphine on intestinal transit. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 205: 547–555 (1978).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, W.C. and Sinclair, R.G.: The absence of ricinoleic acid from phospholipids of rats fed castor oil. Archives of Biochemistry 8: 7–11 (1945).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Street, J.C.: DDT antagonism to dieldrin storage in adipose tissue of rats. Science 146: 1580–1581 (1964).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Street, J.C.; Wang, M. and Blau, A.D.: Drug effects on dieldrin storage in rat tissue. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 1: 6–15 (1966).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sturman, J.A.; Gaull, G. and Raiha, N.C.R.: Absence of cystathionase in human fetal liver: is cystine essential? Science 169: 74–76 (1970).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svanberg, V.; Gebre-Mehden, U.; Ljungqvist, B. and Olsson, M.: Breast milk composition in Ethiopian and Swedish mothers. II. Aminoacids and other nitrogenous substances. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 30: 499 (1977).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svensmark, A.; Schiller, P.I. and Buchthal, F.: 5,5-diphenylhydantoin (Dilantin) blood levels after oral or intravenous dosage in men. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 16: 331–346 (1960).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sykes, P.A. and Quarrie, J.: Lithium carbonate and breast feeding. British Medical Journal 2: 1299 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taitz, L.S.: Modification of weight gain by dietary changes in a population of Sheffield neonates. Archives of Disease in Childhood 50: 746 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Takyi, B.E.: Excretion of drugs in human milk. Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 28: 317–326 (1970).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarjan, R.; Kramer, M.; Szoke, K. et al.: The effect of different factors on the composition of human milk. II. The composition of human milk during lactation. Nutritio et Dieta 7: 136 (1965).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terwilliger, W.G. and Hatcher, R.A.: Morphine and quinine in human milk. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 58: 823–826 (1934).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, L.: The Medusa and the Snail (Viking Press, New York 1979).

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, M.J.; Danutra, V.; Read, G.F.; Hillier, S.G. and Griffiths, K.: The detection and measurement of D-norgestrel in human milk using Sephadex LH 20 chromatography and radioimmunoassay. Steroids 30: 349–361 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R.D.; Nagasawa, H.T. and Jenne, J.W.: Determination of theophylline and its metabolites in human urine and serum by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 84: 584–593 (1974).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tunnessen, W.W. and Hertz, G.C.: Toxic effects of lithium in newborn infants: A commentary. Journal of Pediatrics 81: 804–807 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turkington, R.W.; Majumder, G.C. and Riddle, M.: Inhibition of mammary gland differentiation in vitro by 5-bromo-2′-de-oxyuridine. Journal of Biological Chemistry 246: 1814 (1971).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tyson, R.M.; Shrader, E.A. and Perlman, H.H.: Drugs transmitted through breast milk. Part II. Journal of Pediatrics 13: 86–90 (1938).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tyson, R.M.; Shrader, E.A. and Perlman, H.H.: Drugs transmitted through breast milk. Part II? Journalof Pediatrics 13: 86–90 (1938).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Unna, K.R.; Glaser, K.; Lipton, E. and Patterson, P.R.: Dosage of drugs in infants and children, I. Atropine. Pediatrics (Springfield) 6: 197–207 (1950).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vahlquist, B.: Evolution of breast feeding in Europe. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 21: 11 (1975).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van As, A.: Beta-adrenergic stimulant bronchodilators; in Stein (Ed) New Directions in Asthma, pp. 415–431 (American College of Chest Physicians, Park Ridge, Illinois 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • van Os, F.H.L.: Anthraquinone derivatives in vegetable laxatives. Pharmacology 14 (Suppl. 1): 7–17 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Os, F.H.L.: Some aspects of the pharmacology of anthraquinone drugs. Pharmacology 14(Suppl. 1): 18–29 (1976a).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varsano, I.; Fischl, J. and Shochet, S.B.: The excretion of orally ingested nitrofurantoin in human milk. Journal of Pediatrics 82: 886–887 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vorherr, H.: To breast-feed or not to breast-feed? Postgraduate Medicine 51: 127–134 (1972).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vorherr, H.: The Breast Morphology, Physiology and Lactation (Academic Press, New York, San Francisco, London 1974a).

    Google Scholar 

  • Vorherr, H.: Drug excretion in breast milk. Postgraduate Medicine 56: 97–104 (1974b).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Voshioka, H.; Cho, K.; Takinoto, M.; Naruyana, S. and Shimizu, T.: Transfer of cefazolin into human milk. Journal of Pediatrics 94: 151–152 (1979).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vuori, E.; Tyllinen, H.; Kuitunen, P. and Paganus, A.: The occurrence and origin of DDT in human milk. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 66: 761–765 (1977).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, G. and Fuchs, A.R.: Effect of ethanol on uterine activity during suckling in post-partum women. Acta Endocrinologica 58: 133–141 (1968).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, J.G.; Northam, J.I.; Alway, C.D. and Carpenter, O.S.: Blood levels of drug at the equilibrium state after multiple dosing. Nature 207: 1391–1402 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Waletzky, L.R. and Herman, E.C.: Relactation. American Family Physician 14: 69 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walgren, A.: Breast milk consumption of healthy full-term infants. Acta Paediatrica 32: 778 (1945).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waller, H.: The early failure of breast feeding. A clinical study of its causes and their prevention. Archives of Disease in Childhood 21: 1–12 (1946).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, W.M. and Hassid, W.Z.: Synthesis of lactose by particulate enzyme preparations from guinea pig and bovine mammary glands. Journal of Biological Chemistry 237: 1432–1440 (1962).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, W.C. and Gordon, R.S.: Studies on the digestion, absorption and metabolism of castor oil. Biochemical Pharmacology 11: 229–236 (1962).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, W.C.; Gordon, R.S.; Karmen, A. and Jover, A.: The absorption and excretion of castor oil in man. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 15: 183–188 (1963).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, T.N.: Simple and sensitive procedure for determining nitrate and nitrite in mixtures in biological fluids. Journal of Dairy Science 55: 642–644 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, M.R. and Goldfield, M.: Lithium carbonate treatment during pregnancy. Diseases of the Nervous System 30: 823–832 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  • Welby, M.; O’Halloran, M.W. and Wellby, M.L.: Maternal diet and lipid composition of breast milk. Lancet 2: 458 (1973).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Werthmann, M.W. and Krees, S.V.: Excretion of chlorothiazine in human breast milk. Journal of Pediatrics 81: 781–783 (1972).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West, R.W.; Wilson, D.J. and Schaffner, W.: Hexachlorophene concentrations in human milk. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 13: 167–169 (1975).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wichelow, M.G.: Success and failure in relation to energy intake. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 35: 62A (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R.H.; Kay, G.A. and Jandorf, B.J.: Thiouracil: its absorption, distribution, and excretion. Journal of Clinical Investigation 23: 613–627 (1944).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • White, M.: Breast feeding and drugs in human milk. La Leche League International, Inc., pp. 1–31 (Franklin Park, Illinois 1978).

    Google Scholar 

  • Widdowson, E.M.; Southgate, D.A.T. and Schuiz, Y.: Comparison of dried milk preparations for babies on sale in 7 European countries. I. Protein, fat, carbohydrate and inorganic constituents. Archives of Disease in Childhood 49: 867–873 (1974).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, D.J.; Locker, D.J.; Ritzen, C.A.; Watson, J.T. and Schaffner, W.: DDT concentrations in human milk. American Journal of Diseases of Children 125: 814–817 (1973).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, H.T.: Intestinal Absorption (W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1962).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J.T.; Pragmatic assessment of medicines available for young children and pregnant or breast-feeding women; in Morselli, Garattini and Serini (Eds) Basic and Therapeutic Aspects of Perinatal Pharmacology, pp. 411–421 (Raven Press, New York 1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter, M.; Thomas, M.; Wernick, S.; Levin, S. and Farvar, M.T.: Analysis of pesticide residues in 290 samples of Guatemalan mothers’ milk. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 16: 652–657 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiskerchen, J.E. and Weishaar, J.: Quantitative determination of chlorobutanol in milk by gas-liquid chromatography. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 55: 948–950 (1972).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woodard, B.T.; Ferguson, B.B. and Wilson, D.J.: DDT levels in milk of rural indigent blacks. American Journal of Diseases of Children 130: 400–403 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yurchak, A.M. and Jusko, W.J.: Theophylline secretion into breast milk. Pediatrics 57: 518–520 (1976).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ziv, G.; Shani (Mishkinsky), J.; Givant, Y.; Buchman, O. and Sulman, F.G.: Distribution of tritiated haloperidol in lactating and pregnant cows and ewes. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et Therapie 212: 154–163 (1974).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Shreveport and Departments of Pharmacology Pediatrics and Psychiatry, Louisiana State University Medical Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA

    John T. Wilson (Chief, Section on Clinical Pharmacology), R. Don Brown, Don R. Cherek, John W. Dailey, Bettina Hilman, Phillip C. Jobe, Barbara R. Manno, Joseph E. Manno, Helmut M. Redetzki & John J. Stewart

Authors
  1. John T. Wilson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. Don Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Don R. Cherek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. John W. Dailey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Bettina Hilman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Phillip C. Jobe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Barbara R. Manno
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Joseph E. Manno
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Helmut M. Redetzki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. John J. Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This work was supported in part by a Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association Foundation Award for clinical pharmacology programmes.

This work is dedicated to Dr William A. Silverman, a student.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wilson, J.T., Brown, R.D., Cherek, D.R. et al. Drug Excretion in Human Breast Milk. Clin Pharmacokinet 5, 1–66 (1980). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-198005010-00001

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-198005010-00001

Keywords

Search

Navigation