WAYS TO IMPROVE “BTP QUALITY” AND THE EXTENT TEACHING PRACTICE CONTRIBUTES TO TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

Philbert L. Vumilia and Ladislaus M. Semali. 1. Ph. D. Associate Professor of Education Mwenge Catholic University P.O. Box 1226, Moshi,. 2. Ph. D. Professor Emeritus of Education Penn State University University Park, PA, 16801Philbert L. Vumilia, Tanzania. ...................................................................................................................... Manuscript Info Abstract ......................... ........................................................................ Manuscript History

The present study draws from a 2011 BTP project that explored whether the teaching practice of using cluster monitors can improve teaching skills. In this article, the authors utilized school effectiveness -knowledge base‖ to assess relevant approaches of improving teaching effectiveness in beginning teachers. The intent was to determine whether Block Teaching Practice (BTP) field experiences that included cluster monitors would deliver opportunities to novice teachers to improve their teaching effectiveness. First, this study critically examined the different viewpoints-clinical experiences, effective teaching, and -monitors as mentors‖ of teaching practice. Second, the authors analyzed the dynamic features of teacher education and the field experiences of teaching practice based on observations of novice teachers in 2011, 2012, and 2013. Third, this article presents findings based on reports gathered from BTP monitors to clarify what constituted a learner-centered BTP experience that would bolsters effective teaching. Attention to relevant policies and homegrown master teachers emerged as possible indications for developing excellence in teaching effectiveness and quality of teaching practice. In addition, the study conceded that there seems to be more flexibility for action the closer one gets to the classroom level, thus making teaching effectiveness difficult for those aspiring to become effective teachers.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….... Introduction:-
Achieving teaching effectiveness is a complex and difficult undertaking for novice teachers. Educators believe teaching effectiveness is about a -good teacher,‖ -quality teaching," and -successful teaching,‖ all of which aim to develop a successful student (Hildebrand, 1971;Stronge, 2002;O'Neill, 2017). Attempts to come up with sets of principles or a framework (rubrics) that can produce effective teachers is a constant quest everywhere (Seidel, & Shavelson, 2007). A framework of Block Teaching Practice (BTP) in Tanzania that produces effective teachers is fragmented and often a cause for vicious contention. Some of the forces that account for the contention and fragmentation pose a harsh reality for teacher educators (Lukanga, 2011;Smith, & Lev-Ari, 2005). Since the 1980s, educators have placed considerable emphasis and importance on the process of -learning to teach‖ and the need for critical reflection in teacher education programs in Tanzania (Chediel, 2004;Osaki, 2001).

ISSN: 2320-5407
Int. J. Adv. Res. 5 (10), 1082-1131 1084 Stronge (2002) argues that effective teaching occurs when a combination of many factors in the education process come together, including aspects of a teacher's background and ways to interact with others, as well as specific teaching practices. In sum, education is about relationships. -They (relationships) are the key to learning success. We, as educators, must know and respect our students and help them know and respect one another as fellow learners‖ (Fried, 2001, p. 49).
In addition, to succeed in teaching, the effective teacher must have sufficient knowledge of content, of pedagogy, of context, and of students, to appreciate the intricacies that are bound up in the teaching and learning process. For example, Myalla (2014) lists the traits that excellent teachers have in common (Table 1). That is, if a single method or model for developing an effective teacher existed, such a teacher would be in every classroom. Patience with students who are trying to learn, however, is part of the teaching profession.

Confidence
Good teachers are confident in their abilities to sense where students are in the learning process and in their students' abilities to learn material that is presented in a logical way. Achievement Experienced teachers have clear thoughts on what their students should know at the end of the term, and they understand what they must do along the way in order to reach those goals. Planning Teachers must have plans and stick to them. This goes deeper than rigidly following a course syllabus. Effective teachers can sense when students need more time to absorb the material. Awareness Teachers in elementary and secondary schools must have eyes on the backs of their heads. They need to be aware of everything that happens in their classrooms. Organization Teachers must be able to manage students' diverse personalities and organize their subject matter so that a maximum number of students benefits from their presentations. Vision Teachers should provide their students not only with interesting and useful material, but also with vision of where they might end up if they learn. Community Involvement Maintaining good community relations with parents, administrators, and community leaders enhances a teacher's effectiveness in the classroom.

Context
Every subject has a context, and teachers are responsible for providing it to their students. Teachers must show their students how the information they are learning might be used or might lead to the development of some other useful skills. Source: Myalla, 2014, p. 27. Education experts and stakeholders have struggled to communicate the understanding of what teachers should do to promote success and positive results in the lives of students, such as academic achievement, positive attitudes toward schooling, interest in learning, and other desirable outcomes (e.g., Galabawa, 2001;Ndambi, 1985;Nkonongwa, 2012). These experts maintain that to understand the intricacies of how to produce successful outcomes of students is significant in the preparation and practice of effective teaching.

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Teaching effectiveness is at the core of discourses of improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools. Namely, effective teaching occurs when individual commits to the teaching profession, teacher preparation, classroom management, and the ways a teacher plans, teaches, and monitors students' progress. These characteristics are the hallmark of teachers' preparation, personality, and classroom practice (Friesen, 2009;Hudson, 2004;Stronge, 2002).

Relevance of effective teaching in Tanzania:-
A study of effective teaching is relevant for Tanzania. On the one hand, research studies concluded that teaching practice is a significant part of teacher education for students to become competent and effective teachers (Chivore, 1997;Myalla, 2014;Lukanga, 2001). On the other hand, it was also concluded that teaching practice overall was less than satisfactory because of deficiencies in the quality of supervising teachers and in the application of theory in practice (Marais & Meier, 2004;Walkington, 2005). Given the critical importance of practical teacher education, there has been a concern among university lecturers about how student teachers experience their teaching practice during BTP and the need to address the assumptions that underlie teaching practice (Chediel, 2004;Sumra, & Rajani, 2006). Hence, a critical examination of these assumptions is warranted in the present study.
In addition, a discussion about effective teachers has come up recently in Tanzania Therefore, a discussion of effective teachers is relevant for Tanzania because of concerns about quality education (Semali, 2014) and because teacher quality is recognized as one of the most important factors in promoting student achievement (Sanders & Rivers, 1996;Darling-Hammond & Youngs, 2002). Furthermore, it is well documented by educators and stakeholders that teachers have a long-lasting influence on students since they directly affect how students learn, what they learn, how much they learn, and the ways in which they interact with one another and the world around them (Galabawa, 2001;Ndambi, 1985;Nkonongwa, 2012). Effective teaching combines the essence of quality education to include good classroom management, organization, effective planning, and teachers' personal characteristics (Hildebrand, 1971;Stronge, 2002).
In sum, the quest of effective teaching and quality education overlap. Therefore, it will come as no surprise to anyone involved with schools to find that effectiveness research identifies classroom teachers and their heads of school as key to the success of the institution in which they work (Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008). In addition, there seems to be more flexibility for action the closer one gets to the classroom level. Thus, this situation complicates teaching effectiveness, making it difficult for those aspiring to become effective teachers and to learn the ropes before stepping into the classroom. Taking measures to improve quality of teachers from trainees through to the school heads must begin and continue at the classroom level (Leithwood, et al., 2008).

Gaps in the training of effective teachers:-
Although recent research studies are united in proclaiming the benefits of teaching practice for the professional development of beginning teachers (Chivore, 1997), it is unclear what contribution BTP makes to the formation and training of effective teachers. In addition, teacher education programs vary in the ways they develop successful teachers and the reflective abilities in students. However, research studies indicate that those who volunteer to supervise, mentor, or monitor pre-service teachers may not inherently know how to mentor another or impart teaching effectiveness (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). In this respect, mentor teachers and monitors may not appreciate the complexities of the nature of -teaching effectiveness,‖ or the critical roles formators (mentors, supervisors, monitors, and mentees) play in teaching practice.
In pre-service teacher education, formators strive to mentor beginning teachers in the practical development of the novice teachers' knowledge and skills in teaching (Norasiah, 2001). The mentor is an experienced, highly competent classroom teacher who demonstrates effective interpersonal communication skills in his or her work with adults (Hudson, 2004;Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). The mentor coaches, supports, and inspires the novice teacher. Mentors provide an important lifeline for new teachers-they wear many hats including the hats of problem-solvers, advocates, and coaches. Effective mentors model best practices and skills common among accomplished educators, and in doing so, enable novice teachers to become confident in their new roles (Norasiah, 2001). The relationship 1086 between mentor and novice teacher demonstrates a continuous cycle of support and a commitment to the novice teacher's professional growth and positive impact on student achievement (Garet, et al., 2001).
Recently, the merits of mentoring teachers within the profession have been acknowledged at the national level as a broad element of a teacher's professional role (Feiman-Nemser, 2001;Layne, 2012;URT, 2009). Equally, while the benefits of mentoring for classroom-based teachers have been identified to play a significant role in teacher education, preparations for the roles of mentors, supervisors, and monitors have not been given serious attention nor received the rewards mentors deserve (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001;Feiman-Nemser, 2001).
We have argued elsewhere (Vumilia & Semali, 2016) that in the case of BTP as a culminating event, cooperating schools provide guidance in curriculum and lesson planning and offer critique and feedback about teaching methods (Inman & Marlow, 2004;Kopkowski, 2008). When BTP is taken as a culminating event, it is a major component of the teacher education program (not an option). BTP becomes an integral part of training teachers (Feiman-Nemser, 2001) that must start from the very beginning of the teacher preparation process (Nzilano, 2013;URT, 1995). However, these benefits of BTP are not recognized in teaching practice.
It is against this background that we examined these viewpoints in the present study, namely: clinical experiences, effective teaching, and monitors as mentors of teaching practice. Until recently, theoretical teaching (as opposed to student-teaching practice) seemed to dominate in most teachers' colleges in Tanzania, including private universities, (Nzilano, 2013;URT, 2009) while any practical teaching was deemed secondary, and therefore relegated to only a few weeks of BTP. Best practices, or a viable framework of BTP where student teachers interact with their mentors, supervisors, or monitors, are hard to find anywhere. Therefore, the open question is: Can pre-service teachers put into practice what they learned about successful teaching?
In the following sections, we document the BTP process to examine the dynamic features of teacher education and the field experiences of teaching practice. First, we present the background and context of BTP in Tanzania. Second, the study examines theories that support effective teaching in the attempt to develop a framework of BTP field experience; and third, the study discusses reports gathered from BTP monitors to explain what constitutes a learnercentered BTP experience that bolsters effective teaching.

Background and Context of BTP in Tanzania:-
In Tanzania, the initial teacher training has traditionally consisted of two years of study in a Teachers' Training College (TTC), with relatively little time given to teaching practice in schools. However, the capacity of colleges to supervise teaching practice effectively has often been limited due to funding constraints (Hardman, & Tibuhinda, 2012;MOEC, 2004). In the past 10 years, there have been attempts to minimize costs by making the second year of teacher training school-based. However, this practice presents a major challenge in terms of the effectiveness of the supervision of the school-based component in the second year and suggests the need for more flexible approaches to pre-service training (Hardman, & Tibuhinda, 2012).
The overarching assumption of BTP that calls for scrutiny is the conviction that an effective block teaching practice will stimulate and yield excellence in the teaching of student teachers (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001;Feiman-Nemser, 2001). Apparently, the central hypothesis of the present study is that developing a model of teaching practice that takes into account the pedagogical objectives of teaching practice will yield excellence in teaching.
Conversely, in an environment where mentoring, supervision, and monitoring are entangled, a lack of confidence on the part of mentors, monitors, or supervisors about how to provide teaching effectiveness will persist. In addition, if the -supervisory-monitoring‖ tasks are left undefined in the BTP framework, the enterprise will unlikely succeed. (Hudson, 2003;Hudson, 2004;Hudson, 2007;Walkington, 2005).
Nevertheless, research that concerns couching, or mentoring in the pre-service teachers' context, has found that few teachers receive training or preparation for supervising or mentoring (Hulshof, & Verloop, 1994). In many instances, the assumption is that if teachers are considered effective in the classroom, then they will naturally be able to pass on their skills and knowledge to student teachers through the act of mentoring. This is often not the case, as mentoring is not an inherent skill, but a skill that can be developed through preparation, couching, feedback, and training (Crasborn, Hennissen, Brouwer, Korthagen, & Bergen, 2011; Stronge, 2002).

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BTP in Tanzania occurs when student teachers are placed in primary or secondary schools and are assigned to teach subjects with a cooperating teacher for a pre-determined period. In some universities, this period can last for five weeks, each year, over a period of three years of teacher education. The main expectation of BTP is that subject teachers at the secondary school level, for example, will assist teacher trainees in their struggles to achieve the abilities to teach effectively. However, it turns out that this isoften not the case, because some of the subject teachers mistakenly take this time as free time to do other things when the trainees are left alone at school.
In Tanzania, the initial teacher training has traditionally consisted of a two-year study in TTC, with relatively little time given to teaching practice in schools. However, the capacity of colleges to supervise effective teaching practice has often been limited due to funding constraints (MOEC, 2004). This situation was exacerbated in recent years by the rapidly increasing demand for new teachers after the expansion of pupil enrollment because of two policies-the Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP) and Secondary Education Development Plan (SEDP) (Hardman, & Tibuhinda, 2012).
The persistent question in the study of BTP programs is: What do student teachers do during BTP and how does the clinical experience later bolster successful teaching in classrooms? Ordinarily teaching activities are designed to allow student teachers to put into practice their disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge in respective disciplinary subjects of specialization (e.g., language arts, physics, chemistry, or biology) (Chediel, 2004). Student teachers also practice other skills during the clinical experience, such as classroom management. They engage in activities like taking the roles of the class teacher, teachers on duty, or any other responsibilities germane to the smooth running of the school as directed by the leadership of the host school. It is therefore important to critically examine these issues because the current practice of BTP (Osaki, 2001;Chediel, 2004; URT,) is believed to take place purposely in teachers' colleges to enable novice teachers subsequently to match the required theoretical skills, knowledge, and pedagogical strategies acquired at the university or teachers' colleges.

Features of Teacher Education:-
Teacher education is a teaching program that is related to the development of teacher proficiency and competency that enables and empowers novice teachers to meet the requirements of the profession and face the possible looming challenges in disciplinary classrooms (MOEC, 2010, p. iv). Between 1906 and 1956, the program of teacher preparation was popularly called teacher training (Kilpatrick, 1922). It prepared teachers for the profession as if they were mechanics or technicians. The goal was skill training. This perspective of teacher education was criticized for being very narrow and its scope limited. Currently, teacher education-rather than -training‖ (Kilpatrick, 1922), which might refer to the training of animals and circus performers-encompasses teaching skills, sound pedagogical theory, and professional skills.
Teaching skills in teacher education include providing training and practice in the different techniques, approaches, and strategies that would help teachers to plan and impart instruction, provide appropriate reinforcement, and conduct effective assessment. It includes effective classroom management skills, preparation and use of instructional materials, and communication skills (Chadiel, 2004;Hulshof & Verloop, 1994) .
Pedagogical theory includes the philosophical, sociological, and psychological considerations that would enable teachers to have a sound basis for practicing the teaching skills in the classroom. Pedagogy theory is stage specific, and is based on the needs and requirements that are characteristic of that stage--namely, pre-service, induction, and in-service (Bartlett, 2005;Creemers, & Kyriakides, 2007). Likewise, professional skills include the techniques, strategies, and approaches that would help teachers grow in the profession, as well as work toward the growth of the profession itself. It includes soft skills-counseling skills, interpersonal skills, computer skills, information retrieving and management skills, and above all, lifelong learning skills. An amalgamation of teaching skills, pedagogical theory, and professional skills would serve to create the balanced knowledge, attitude, and skills in teachers, thus promoting the desired holistic teacher development.

Different categories of teacher education:-
Teacher education in Tanzania is divided into two categories: pre-service training and in-service training (Osaki, 2001). Pre-service training prepares a person for a teaching career. The training enables future teachers to comprehend educational theories, education philosophy, teaching methodologies, and educational ethics while gaining social skills, knowledge, and other skills in different subjects with which to start a successful teaching career. A teacher is expected to master his or her area of specialization to be in the best position to help learners 1088 (URT, 1995). Teacher education is currently offered in Tanzania through three clusters (Centre for International Education, 2011): 1. Grade A teachers. These are teachers who are trained to teach pre-primary and primary school students.
Normally, eligible teachers are supposed to be Form Four graduates (holding Ordinary Level secondary education certificate). Training lasts for two years and the training emphasizes teaching methodologies. 2. Diploma teachers. Diploma teachers are trained to teach in secondary schools, although most of them will also teach in primary schools. The Diploma in Education training lasts for two years. Due to the existing shortage of teachers in the country, resulting from the recent surge in enrollments, diploma trainees are currently studying theories of education in Teachers' Colleges for one year only, with the remaining year spent in schools as part of BTP (URT, 1995). Novice teachers' curricula at this level emphasize teaching methodologies and ethics. 3. Degree teachers. This is the highest level of teacher education in Tanzania (URT, 1995). Teacher training at this level varies in specializations: (a) teachers training as college tutors specialize in teaching methodologies and education psychology; and (b) teachers who train to teach in secondary schools learn many academic subjects. Typically, student teachers will select two teaching subjects for specialization from their Form six subject combinations. In addition, they will take education courses, including methods of teaching.
Following the liberalization policies in 1994, individuals and private agencies were encouraged to invest in education to complement government efforts to augment teacher shortages. Many private education institutions and universities have been established in the country at all levels of the education system. Teacher education is therefore offered in both government and non-government colleges, including universities. (URT. (2012).

"BTP Excellence" in Teacher Education:-
Evidence of the report about the lack of a framework of BTP Excellence can be found in a variety of indicators. First, the lack of specificity and use of different terminology within the literature. For example, as observed by Ambrosetti (2014) and other educators in Tanzania (e.g., Malekela, 2004; URT, 1995), the term BTP has been intertwined and interchangeably used with terms such as practicum, clinical experience, pre-service teachers education, supervising student teachers, monitoring student-teachers, and, less frequently, coaching of student-teachers (Koç, 2011;Sundli, 2007). Second, few scholars have studied or described how BTP occurs within the specific context of the pre-service teacher program or, more precisely, tried to develop a framework for rigorous teaching practice.
Currently the BTP monitoring project has the following objectives: 1. To develop an effective BTP for large numbers of students that will enable students to develop their practical teaching skills with special emphasis on learner-centered techniques; 2. To expose student teachers to skills and knowledge on important classroom observation and feedback mechanisms to improve teachers' practice; 3. To develop in student teachers an appreciation of the effectiveness of the BTP program offered by the university.
The present study was designed to examine these perspectives-clinical experiences, effective teaching, and monitors as mentors of teaching practice. For example, what motivates monitors to engage pre-service teachers in teaching effectiveness? How do monitors see their role in the novice teachers' relationship? The assumption was that monitors' roles would be integral to the overall effort to achieve positive outcomes for both monitors and the pre-service teachers. The study analyzed reports gathered from BTP monitors for an extended period. The quest was to establish the dynamics of -monitoring as mentoring.‖ Monitoring was interwoven with the recent history of teacher training at the university in the attempt to find alternative ways to deliver BTP experience to novice science teachers. The goal was to replace existing frameworks that were not working or had too many undisclosed deliverables. Figure 1 shows the distribution of personnel in a variety of constituencies.
1089 The university leadership decided to find different strategies to help pre-service teachers improve their teaching skills. The option chosen for experiment was a Framework in which experienced teachers in a cluster of five schools were grouped. One experienced teacher was selected in each cluster to mentor teacher trainees who were placed in the five schools participating in BTP. Then, the teachers were invited to the university campus for training on how to assist novice teachers during BTP. After training, teachers were sent back to their respective schools with the responsibility of monitoring the pre-service teachers in the five schools. This experiment took five phases, starting with a small number of trainees as a pilot, then followed by four phases, in which the numbers of novice teachers to be monitored were steadily increased with a corresponding number of cluster monitors.
By phase five, most of student teachers had been assigned monitors. During the orientation workshop on campus, facilitators noticed that monitors were not well informed about learner-centered pedagogy. Since the university was committed to pursue the learner-centered approach, it became necessary to find ways to introduce the method to teachers in all the secondary schools that volunteered to host student teachers. The BTP coordinating team asked heads of schools to select experienced teachers in their schools who would fit the role of monitors and who would help to provide support to student teachers. Fifty-four (54) experienced teachers were ready to come to the university to attend a BTP workshop that prepared them for monitoring.
Reading materials for the workshop were distributed to participants in advance. Letters of introduction were sent to the schools, and permission to attend workshops was sought on their behalf from the District Education Officers (DEOs). Transportation and meal allowances were provided. The workshop took one day, and some of the topics covered in the sessions included the following areas: 1. roles of monitors during teaching practice 2. lesson preparation (scheme of work and lesson plans) 3. how to give feedback and its significance 4. teacher professional conduct 5. lesson evaluation and use of the evaluation tools The practice of including cluster monitors in the BTP experience builds on projects designed to enable the university faculty to monitor 1500 students' experiences more effectively. Funding from foundations bolstered the initial threeyear phases in 2011, 2012, and 2013. The number of monitors was gradually increased as funding agencies became interested in the BTP project. Examples of feedback mechanisms and evaluation strategies included in the overall project were: 1. Who is responsible for the student teachers once they arrive at the designated school? 2. Which schools are eligible for taking up the student teachers? 3. Who is the most suitable and qualified person to supervise student teachers? 4. What can student teachers learn from their supervisors or cooperating teachers? 5. Alternatively, what could cooperating-teachers learn from university professors during the BTP field experience?
To determine whether undergraduate students demonstrated the acquired teaching skills they learned in class, supervisors and monitors were assigned every year to observe student teachers during the clinical experience. During BTP, different protocols were followed, and a variety of rubrics were given to students. Equally, academic teachers and heads of schools were engaged to write comments about the progress of the whole BTP experience. Often, emphasis was placed on areas like assessment of the schemes of work, lesson plans, and teacher trainees' established criteria for evaluation of language use during lessons. The workshop underscored the monitoring role of providing support to student teachers. Monitors were urged to be attentive to the central role of guiding the novice teachers on effective teaching practices, not assessing. For example, see Table 3.

Students-Teachers' Orientation:-
A one-week workshop is organized for student orientation before the actual teaching practice starts. The students are divided into two groups, with each team using three days of the week since the number of students is too large for one group. The orientation is facilitated by the BTP coordinating team with the help of some lecturers from different departments of the university. Some of the topics include lesson plans, scheme of work format, teaching and learning activities, teaching and learning resources, peer evaluation, portfolio assessment, student evaluation, as well as teacher professional conduct. All the teaching materials are made available to students to make copies for themselves.

Staff/Supervisor Orientation:-
Staff/supervisor orientation is conducted as a workshop whereby supervisors share information about the different aspects of BTP supervision. The sharing of information is guided by specifically selected topics. The BTP coordinating team with the help of some university lecturers facilitates the orientation. Topics covered during the staff/supervisor orientation include student assessment form, portfolio assessment, lesson plan, and scheme of work format. During the orientation, supervisors are provided with the students' assessment form, assessment grid, scheme of work format, and lesson plan format. 1091

Role of monitors in BTP:-
Monitors must visit students in different schools to observe students while teaching. The observation phase is necessary to help the monitors to identify areas that need improvement. Monitors advise student teachers on teaching areas that require improvement. The monitoring activity takes place twice before the university supervisors arrive at the school to supervise the student teachers in the field. Monitors are oriented in different topics before visiting students in the schools. Topics covered during the monitor's orientation include how to use the student assessment form, lesson plan format, scheme of work format, learner-centered teaching techniques, classroom management, as well as teaching and learning resources. During the orientation, supervisors are provided with students' assessment form, assessment grid, scheme of work format and lesson plan format, and notes on learnercentered teaching techniques, classroom management, as well as teaching and learning resources.
Moreover, as soon as teaching practice ends, monitors are expected to return all assessment forms they used during the monitoring period. It is the work of the BTP coordinating teams to go through the reports, analyze them, and write a final report. Supervisors are supposed to grade students' portfolios and compile the final grades to be submitted to the university's examination office. Students are expected to prepare portfolios that include lesson plans, scheme of work, peer observation reports, and lesson notes. The portfolios are used for feedback purposes as well as grading. In addition, the supervisors were expected to share their BTP experiences (success, challenges, what needs to be improved, etc.) with the BTP coordinating team during a BTP feedback session specifically arranged to identify ways to improve BTP experiences.
In sum, the guiding principles for a framework that bolsters effective teaching include the following (MINT, 2010, Rule 6B-1.001).
1. Rigorous professional standards and a focus on student achievement guide the teaching practice of effective teachers. 2. Becoming an effective teacher is a developmental process. 3. Effective support and assistance are tailored to meet the individual needs of the developing teacher. 4. Sustained, consistent, mentor support is critical to the development of effective teachers. 5. Head teacher's support is critical to the development of effective teachers. 6. Effective induction support enhances teaching practice and teacher retention.
As expected, items 4 and 6 highlight the significance of a mentor's support and effective induction. As explained previously, the role of the mentor is irreplaceable. Equally, the need for a supportive induction process ensures the integrity of the profession.
Recently, educators have observed that the conceptualization of the processes that take place during pre-service teacher education contexts need further scrutiny and the requisite development of an unambiguous framework (Walkington, 2005;Seidel, & Shavelson, 2007). This observation is not baseless for Tanzania, BTP is designed as an integral component of the teacher training experience, and therefore, student teachers are obliged to engage with experienced teachers who guide and monitor their teaching practice as part of their teacher-training program (Hardman, Abd-Kadir, & Tibuhinda, 2012). Since teaching practice deals with hands-on in teaching, there is broad agreement on the importance of incorporating field experiential learning into teacher education programs (Wang et al., 2003) even though the requirements vary widely across countries (Ronfeldt & Reininger, 2012).

Theoretical Perspectives:-
The process of -learning to teach‖ future effective teachers has been a daunting task since at least the time of Plato (Ramsey, 2000). For this reason, the reality of making an effective teacher prompted Jardine, Clifford, and Friesen (2008) to conclude: -What began with such enthusiasm and hope, around a century ago in the organization and imagining of schooling, has simply worn out. . . ‖ (p. 14). Despite the complexity, the theoretical questions educators must ask are: What makes an effective teacher, and how does a novice teacher become effective? A related but pertinent question is: Will (teaching) practice make a perfect teacher. That is, can BTP bolster effective or successful teaching?
The overarching hypothesis of this study is that clinical experiences and the time spent on teaching practice will yield teaching effectiveness. A theory for teaching practice is necessary to support this proposition and explain how mentoring would be developed as a framework for teaching effectiveness. Undoubtedly, such mentoring will require a new approach that takes mentoring to a higher level of operation.

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Studies on teaching effectiveness in the past have relied on -school effectiveness" theory and knowledge base (Scheerens, 1998). For example, the Canadian K-12 School Effectiveness Framework (2013) illustrates how a rubric, purposely designed to provide support for school improvement and student success, seeks to identify evidence-based indicators of successful practice in a number of components of effective schools. The indicators, with samples of evidence, assist educators in building coherence and aligning practices across an entire school (see Figure 2).
The Canadian school effectiveness framework, shown in Figure 2, supports core principles adopted by schools in Ontario, Canada. These principles include (1) high levels of student achievement; (2) reduced gaps in student achievement; and (3) increased public confidence in publicly funded education (Block, & Mowat, 2013, p. 3). Students are the central focus of the framework. High expectations for their learning and achievement are paramount. In addition, this framework identifies specific practices that support educators in reaching all students, removing ethnic and disability discrimination biases and systemic barriers (p. 4).
The first concentric circles of Figure 2 reflect what occurs in the school. Personalization puts the student at the center, providing assessment and instruction that are tailored to students' learning needs. Precision links assessment for and as learning evidence-based instruction to respond to the learning needs of each student. This example reinforces the assumption that teaching effectiveness bears on systems thinking and a holistic view of school effectiveness and its relationship to teaching itself.
Other quests for a framework exist. For example, Hudson (2004) proposed a theory for mentoring in teaching practices. The theory provides a framework and rubric for constructing knowledge from prior experiences, hence developing the potential of the student teacher by moving from the general to the specific. The framework complements field experience models currently operating in schools (e.g., learner-centered approach). Hudson (2004) argued that it is essential for BTP programs to focus on specific objectives for developing effective teaching practices. In this respect, therefore, mentoring is a change agent, but will require a new readiness from formators (e.g., mentors, supervisors, and monitors) to guide mentees more effectively in pedagogy as well as in the content of specific subjects. Concurrently, the underlying conviction is that teacher education is constantly evolving and dynamic (Creemers, & Kyriakides, 2007;Friesen, 2009). To prepare teachers who are competent to face the challenges of a dynamic society, teacher education programs must keep abreast of recent developments, policies, and trends. Thus, the entire process of teacher education lies in its curriculum, design, structure, organization, and transaction modes, as well as the extent of its appropriateness (Ramsey, 2000). Effective BTP begins with an understanding of teachers' needs and their work environments-schools and classrooms. BTP then combines a range of techniques in the teaching practice to promote learning; provides novice teachers with the support they need; engages school leadership; and makes use of evaluation to increase its impact on student learning. (Creemers, & Kyriakides, 2007).
The essential practices envisaged in the teaching profession include mentoring, teamwork, observation, reflection, and assessment (Crasborn, Hennissen, Brouwer, Korthagen, & Bergen, 2011;Friesen, 2009, p. 7-12). The assumption is that BTP can accommodate teachers as learners, recognize the long-term nature of learning, and utilize methods that are likely to lead teachers to continually improve their practice as professionals (Creemers, & Kyriakides, 2007). An unfortunate consequence of BTP has been that initiatives introduced in teaching practice are too often designed to be -one-size-fits-all,‖ unimodal (i.e., lecture-based), and overly theoretical, such that novice teachers never obtain a working knowledge, practice, or innovative techniques (Ramsey, 2000).
It is within this context that Hudson (2007) proposes the adoption of a constructivist theory to frame an effective teacher in order to complement effective mentoring within field experiences (teaching practicum). This constructivist theory can be used to build upon prior understandings and relationships, with the goal of developing the novice teacher's knowledge and skills for future teaching (see Figure 3). In this model, Hudson emphasizes that the quality of teaching programs' field experiences depends on mentors. The central role of mentors should focus on modeling to novice teachers. It is worth noting, therefore, that in Hudson's constructivist approach, as shown in Figure 3, feedback of mentors and modeling in effective teaching are critical components of this theory. Modeling takes many forms, such as when teachers plan activities together; when a master teacher observes a novice teacher and provides feedback; and when a team of teachers watches a video lesson and reflects on and discusses the lesson (Friesen, 2009).
Together with personal attributes, these forms of modeling produce the five-factor model envisaged by Hudson toward teaching practices that can pave the way to effective teaching. Ramsey (2000) found in a study of Australian education that current professional development initiatives which equip educational leaders and mentors with the knowledge and skills to fulfill their roles in the induction of -new members‖ must be a priority for universities (p. 208). In practice, induction is the support and guidance that a master teacher provides to novice teachers and school administrators in the early stages of their careers. The support encompasses orientation to the workplace, socialization, mentoring, and guidance through beginning teacher's practice (See Friesen, 2009, pp. 7-12).

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Induction into the teaching profession takes many forms, and often the timing or place is context-bound. For example, the ways teachers are inducted in Taiwan, Nigeria, South Africa, or Tanzania can differ, and the experiences are contextually situated. Often in these countries, induction is part of the teacher education programpre-service or in-service.
Overall, induction is connected to the success of the beginning teacher and linked to teaching effectiveness. In Tanzania, for example, teacher induction has evolved over the years. There was a time when the teaching profession was revered and respected despite small salaries. Teachers were revered because of the respect the community accorded the teacher, since a teacher's title was -mwalimu‖ forever. Even after changing jobs or retiring, this person continued to be called -mwalimu.‖ In this respect, a teacher was not only an educator but also a role model, a guide and an elder in the local community.
Thus, induction for this cadre of teachers began the moment they entered the teacher training college. Total commitment to the profession at this initial stage was critical and valued. Consequently, induction took the appearance of socialization to the profession. The African equivalent of this concept of induction is -ipvunda.‖ The Chagga people of Tanzania refer to ipvunda as -teaching‖ (formation) of a special kind. The wisdom contained in this concept is itself telling in terms of what it means to children and adolescents growing up in the region, as a basis for formation and increasingly for the mentoring of future teachers. In sum, ipvunda inspired adults with principles of respect, honor, and maturity purposely intended to instill the culture of modeling and teaching of others-which in turn influenced the way a teacher speaks, behaves in public, teaches in the classroom, and the respect he or she gives to colleagues and other professionals.
Sambuli-Mosha (2002) argued that the process of ipvunda among the Chagga of Tanzania illustrates the heartbeat of a healthy society and the interconnectedness between life in the community and the knowledge within and outside its borders. For Sambuli-Mosha, there are three educational tools in the ipvunda process. First, linguistic toolsnamely stories, riddles, songs, and dance-can emulate the prowess and wisdom of heroes and heroines. Second, spiritual inspiration of rituals-words, proverbs, sayings, and actions-instill in a novice what it means to be an adult role model. Third, role-playing (or modeling) is an effective technique to internalize the qualities of the guide, leader, or respected person. These tools, Sambuli-Mosha insisted, help to awaken in students and teachers their potential for hard work, respect, and hospitality, and then, continue to nurture this human potential to -do good‖ and to become the best persons they can be (pp. 160-161). In sum, Sambuli-Mosha's views reinforce the personal attributes of the teacher.
The socialization process circumscribed in the -ipvunda‖ process illustrates what the teaching profession meant for teachers decades ago. Ipvunda was connected to a sense of accomplishment, effectiveness, honor, and respect. A person who took ipvunda seriously became an accomplished individual and deserved respect. In particular, teachers who graduated from the reputable Teachers' Colleges of Mpwapwa, Singa Chini, Marangu, or Kigurunyembe in Morogoro were said to take the teaching profession seriously. Often ordinary citizens talked about teachers' good conduct, devotion to teaching, leadership, and strong role models. The challenge today is whether the induction of new teachers can recover the ipvunda spirit of yesteryear and adopt its principles to current teaching practices. These considerations are necessary in the attempt to examine critically the relationship between mentors and novice teachers.
The present study takes up the supposition that teacher education is a continuous process and that its pre-service and in-service stages are not only complementary to each other but also lifelong and cumulative (Rossi, Magnoler, Mangione, Pettenati, & Rosa, A. (2016). Equally, while teacher education in many countries differentiates the stages of pre-service, induction, and in-service, it recognizes that the -subject knowledge-base‖ must be adequately specialized and diversified across the stages of pre-service, induction and in-service. Thus, it should be utilized when developing effective processes for preparing teachers for the functions that a classroom teacher is expected to perform at each of the three stages (Rossi, et al., 2016).
The pre-service phase is the overall period during which the novice teacher learns the ropes-the art of teaching, reflecting, planning, and managing. The socialization processes that take place in the induction phase, however, may occur from the time a person expressed the intention to become a teacher to the stage of a seasoned effective teacher. The agents of induction are peers, the head teacher, and other educators committed to successful and quality education (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). During teaching practice sessions, teacher trainees must take the opportunity to link into the culture of teaching. Equally, trainees apply the theories they learned in course work at the university-such as the teaching methods, teaching strategies, teaching principles, teaching techniques, and practical training of the varied activities that schools engage in (Marais & Meier, 2004; cited in Kiggundu, 2007).

Perspectives on teaching effectiveness:-
Effective teaching is not one specific thing; rather, it is a combination of many characteristics and skills of teaching practice, including aspects of a teacher's background and ways to interact with others, as well as specific teaching practices. Debates about effective teaching and ways to organize teaching practice for novice teachers are far from being resolved. Whether effective teaching really occurs during BTP is a debatable question. For example, how does one design an improvement agenda when many of the characteristics seem like personal attributes? Some scholars criticize the view that tends to emphasize teaching effectiveness by saying that (1) there are too many intervening variables; and (2) teaching effectiveness takes the focus away from learning and students (Merryfield, 1998;Layne, 2012;Osaki, 2001). The open question is: Are teaching and learning mutually exclusive? Alternatively, can teachers only focus on one and not the other?
Scholars have examined the common attributes of the teacher to determine the meaning of effective teaching (Gao, & Liu, 2012). Students, teachers, and administrators agreed on the attributes that shape an effective teacher-namely, one who cultivates thinking skills, stimulates interest in the subject, and motivates students to learn-but not necessarily in that order. Interestingly, Feldman (1988) conducted a meta-analysis of 31 studies in which teachers and students identified specific characteristics that are associated with good teaching and effective instruction. Feldman found a split between students and faculty members. Students identified the importance of teachers as being interesting, having good elocutionary skills, being available, and being helpful. However, in Feldman's analysis, faculty members placed more importance on being intellectually challenging, motivating students, setting high standards, and encouraging self-initiated learning. These perspectives seem to suggest that teaching effectiveness comes down to teaching students in such a way that learning results in the end, and if these aspects of teaching promote learning, then teachers should clinch those aspects and work on the abilities necessary to develop such skills (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Layne, 2012). Hence, the question we pursue in this study is: Can a framework of -‗BTP Excellence‖ in teacher education produce effective teaching in student teachers?
These debates on teaching effectiveness exist in public and private colleges of teacher preparation in Tanzania, and the entire education sector that accounts for preparing teachers for the 21 st century is threatened with various curricular and pedagogical challenges. For example, one such challenge is a change in the duration of training. A subsequent dilemma is whether the focus of the teacher -education curriculum‖ should be on the subject matter (content), pedagogy (methodology), or both.
Clearly, these challenges emanate from debates beyond the Tanzanian Ministry of Education and the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE). Scholars sum up the arguments, claims, and counterclaims of the debates into two threads: teacher-centered pedagogy vs. learner-centered pedagogy.
Teacher-centered vs. Learner-centered Pedagogy:-First, we look at the teacher-centered approach, where those who were charged with the responsibility of deciding on the models of teaching practice tended to put more emphasis on political, economic, and administrative needs at the expense of pedagogical needs of student teachers, thus forfeiting any chances of developing effective teaching goals (Brown, 2003a;Brown, 2003b). In recent years, many African countries have embarked on a reform agenda to address the historically common teacher-centered curriculum, which employs a lecture style, learning by rote method, and characterizing the teacher as a technician in a -talk and chalk‖ classroom (Vavrus, Thomas, & Bartlett, 2011).
In essence, the aim of the so-called instrumental approach to teacher-centered pedagogy is to utilize the technical rationality of the model of transmitting knowledge about the content of their disciplinary subject and hone in the -correct‖ ways for teaching content to student teachers. In turn, student teachers are then evaluated on the extent to 1096 which their lesson plans, methods, and techniques demonstrate these technical skills (Thomas, &Vavrus, 2010;Vavrus, & Bartlett, 2013).
Second, there are those who believe there is a need to shift from -lecture-based‖ approaches to -active learning teaching‖ for students studying to become the next generation of teachers, practitioners, professionals and policy makers. Learner-centered pedagogy (LCP) broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student (Moate & Cox, 2015;Schweisfurth, 2015). This approach claims to promote inquiry-based learning to ensure students develop creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

Learner-centered pedagogy in BTP:-
Advocates of the LCP consider this method to include activities such as small group discussions, debates, role playing, and project-based assignments that are likely to help students develop critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills (Smith, & Hudson, 2016 (Ambrosetti, 2014), rather than being supported by known theories or models of teaching practice (Tabulawa, 1997).

Critics of learner-centered pedagogy:-
Some scholars however, question the grounds for the appeal of learner-centered pedagogy (LCP). In Tanzania, attempts to formalize or regulate learner-centered approaches in schools and teacher education colleges have not panned out or produced definitive results (UNESCO, 2004). It is unclear whether the acclaimed benefits derive from teacher characteristics such as maintaining high expectations or are simply attributable to the superior nature of LCP as an educational approach, or perhaps, the euphoria associated with a new fad in educational reform. In addition, scholars question the wholesale transferability of the LCP model to African schools without serious effort to adapt or conduct pilot studies that ascertain the benefits (Nykiel-Herbert, 2004).
Since LCP emphasizes the importance of students' prior knowledge to construct new knowledge and as a foundation for learning, critics observe that some students' learning can be impaired by LCP (Semali, 2002). They argue that students who live in impoverished or remote areas and have little to no access to learning experiences outside of their local environment have no prior knowledge worthy of comparison or the ability to transfer what they know to new learning modes or content. For these children in poor families, enhancements are out of reach. In sum, the rationales favoring LCP cannot be globally coopted without scrutiny. Nevertheless, scholars and policymakers must keep in mind that the quality of education will depend on effective teaching and up-to-date curriculum (Ramsden, 2003).

Summary of theoretical perspectives and emerging propositions :-
The central hypothesis of this study is that developing a model or framework of teaching practice that integrates the key ingredients of teaching practice (good classroom management, organization, effective planning, commitment to the profession, and teachers' personal characteristics) will yield excellence in teaching. Such a framework would mark the -effective teacher‖ to be desired in every classroom. This study's theoretical section can be summed up in three propositions that emerge from the vast review of the literature.
First, the understanding of teaching effectiveness in BTP borrows heavily from theories in school effectiveness and constructivism. Many of the assumptions that inspire earlier attempts to rationalize the process of teaching effectiveness have been criticized or abandoned. However, the need for collecting data and evaluating the efficiency of existing BTP programs has therefore become ever more acute than before. The conclusion is that teaching effectiveness cannot be achieved as a final point, but it is a constant quest aimed at the improvement of teaching in classrooms and in the overall school system.
Second, to determine teaching effectiveness or successful teaching seems to rely heavily on empowering students to take charge of their learning and maintaining ongoing monitoring. This means that constructive theories have excessive sway over the learning process and little ability of the classroom teacher to influence classroom outcomes 1097 in students. De-emphasizing pedagogy and strengthening the learning process seem to summarize fairly the crux of the debates between teacher-centered and learner-centered approaches.
Third, there is no comprehensive or conclusive propositions to ascertain what quality teaching is. Teaching effectiveness is a difficult concept to capture or define; and once defined, is of a nature that is difficult to measurebecause it consists of too many intervening variables and personal attributes. To date, there is significant reliance on teachers' attributes and commitment as essential factors of teaching effectiveness. The emerging framework is a variety of principles laid out for novice teachers to consider following as examples of quality teaching, successful teachers, and codes or rubrics with which to conduct teaching.
Clearly, there remain unresolved dilemmas related to quality of BTP teaching. For example, the means with which to integrate induction in the clinical experience or the role of culture in the design of subject matter and pedagogy remain unresolved. Quality teaching is problematic since there is no rubric or consensus as to how to evaluate or determine -good‖ teaching. There seems to be more flexibility for creativity, innovation, and action the closer one gets to the classroom level, thus making teaching effectiveness difficult to pin down for those aspiring to become effective teachers.

Research Design:-
The primary goal of this study was to determine whether the BTP field experience in teacher education that involves cluster monitors would deliver opportunities to novice teachers to improve their teaching effectiveness. Monitoring was used as a mentoring strategy in teacher preparation. Monitors consisted of experienced teachers purposely selected from a cluster of schools in the area (see Table 3). From the start, monitors were invited to attend a three-day workshop for orientation that was specifically tailored to learner-centered pedagogy. Later, the monitors assisted teacher trainees during teaching practice. The target of 25 cluster centers and 125 (of 225) schools and about 750 (of 1500) students was met. Close to 800 students participated in the project. The project area was extended over the Kilimanjaro, Meru, and Arusha districts. Fifty-one (51) cluster monitors were contracted and trained for the monitoring of the teaching practicals. On average, a monitor was responsible for 16 students. In most cases, the monitor attended to 3-5 schools, in a few cases up to 7 schools. Compared to 2015, the distribution of schools seems to have been better clustered, which contributed to a much higher number of lessons monitored.
Most of the monitors, 35 out of 57 (61%), continued in the second year as monitors. The reason monitors did not continue was primarily because the school no longer participated in the BTP program. Some schools opted out, some had internal problems, and others were discontinued to achieve a better organization of the school clusters. District  2011  2012  Arusha  8  8  Moshi  6  3  Moshi Rural  3  6  Monduli  1  0  Mwanga  0  1  Hai  6  7  Rombo  2  4  Vunjo  7  3  All  33  32 1098

Results:-
A survey of 20 monitors was conducted on the effectiveness of the monitoring activity, and the findings are shown in Table 4.  Table 4 show that 70% of the monitors who responded to this question rated the ability of teacher trainees on lesson preparation as being between very good and excellent (75%). This suggests that most of the monitors were satisfied with the ways in which student teachers from the university prepared their lessons. In addition, the findings show that student teachers prepare their lessons before going to class. Lesson preparation for teachers is the hallmark of effective teaching, an important area of emphasis during the theoretical training at the university. Preparation helps teachers to focus, manage time, and reflect on how to engage students in the lesson activities.  Figure 4 show that student teachers' ability in planning teaching and learning activities was rated as being excellent by 10 (50%) of the monitors who participated in the study. Six monitors (30%) rated their ability to be very good, and 4 (20%) rated this aspect to be good. This result suggests that monitors consider the student teachers to be competent in planning the teaching and learning activities in the lesson plan. During theoretical training at the university, student teachers are taught to use learner centered-teaching strategies and specific learning activities for effective teaching and learning. The ability of student teachers to integrate those activities in the lesson plans as described by the monitors are good indicators of the student teachers being able to use learner-centered activities in teaching.

Student teachers' ability in lesson planning:-
Furthermore, Figure 4 shows that eight (40%) of the monitors rated student teachers as having the ability to set lesson objectives. The overall picture drawn by the monitors is mixed-showing some students able to design lesson activities and provide assessment and evaluation, while others require further assistance to do the same tasks. The faculty of education pushes student teachers to write at least three specific objectives for each lesson-meaning that there should be at least one objective for the lower levels (knowledge and comprehension), one from the medium levels (application and analysis), and the last one from the higher levels (evaluation and synthesis) according to Blooms' taxonomy. Therefore, some students probably still do not put forth an effort to learn -action verbs‖ used in each level of cognition.
The ability to fulfill the assessment and evaluation components of lesson plans were also rated by monitors. As noted in Figure 4, some 35% and 30% of the monitors rated the students' ability in writing the assessment and evaluation aspects of the lesson plan respectively to be very good. However, 20% of the monitors rated the student teachers' ability in evaluating their lesson as being weak.

Level of engaging students during lessons:-
When asked to rate student teachers' levels of engaging students in their lessons, 50% of the monitors rated them to be very good, while 30% rated the same as excellent. Only 10% rated them to be good, and only 10% rated them as fair. This finding suggests that most of the monitors were satisfied with the extent to which teacher trainees engaged students during lessons. As the university emphasizes learner-centered techniques that call for maximum engagement of the learners in the lessons, these findings from the monitors prove that the student teachers are putting into practice the methodologies that they learn in classes. Though the monitors were satisfied with this aspect, few students were identified as poor in this category. The reason could be due to the fact that some first-year students do not attend the orientation courses before going to teaching practice and, therefore, find difficulties when executing their responsibilities as teachers.

Student teachers' communication skills:-
Monitors were asked to rate student teachers' communication skills during the teaching practice. See Table 5. Engagement of students in lessons 5% 90% 5% 4.
Personal factors 15% 85% 0% Table 5 shows that most student teachers benefited from the monitors' feedback on how to improve their lesson planning and preparations. This was reflected by 80% of the trainees who responded that it was very helpful, while 15% said it was helpful, and 5% responded that it sometimes was helpful, respectively. On improving communication skills during teaching and evaluation, a majority (65%) of the teacher trainees found that the presence of the monitor was very helpful and thus they learned from them.
Equally, monitors were required to rate the student teachers' communication skills during the teaching practice. The results show that 35% of the monitors rated this ability as being good, 30% rated it to be very good, 30% rated it to be fair, and only 5% rated it as being excellent. These findings imply that monitors consider student teachers' communication skills to be good. Since communication is a two-way path, both teachers and students in the classroom need to be equipped with effective communication skills. However, effective communication in English remains a problem for both teachers and students.
1100 Student teachers' personal attributes:-Student teachers' personal factors included punctuality, personality, style of dress, and the general behavior during the teaching practice period. Data in table 1 show that 40% of the monitors rated this aspect to be excellent, 30% rated it as being very good, and the other 30% rated it to be good. This implies that monitors perceived student teachers from Mwenge Catholic University as behaving well during teaching practice. The orientation courses offered to these teacher trainees before teaching practice emphasized acceptable behaviors by teachers could have affected the general behavior of these teachers in the schools. Malicious behaviors such as drunkenness, sexual relationships with students, use of abusive language, and disobedience to the school and its principles are condemned by the university, and effective measures are taken against student teachers who violate the principles while teaching.
Acceptable teacher behavior is emphasized because ample time is used by teachers to prepare for their lesson, mark and record students' examination results, as well as when acting as role models for students who may be learning through imitation. Monitors were then asked to rank the general competence of student teachers with respect to content mastery, methods of teaching, class management, and lesson preparations. The 27 monitors' responses to this question are summarized in Figure 5.  Figure 5 shows that 50% of the monitors rated the general competence of teacher trainees as excellent, 33% rated it as being very good, and 17% rated it to be good. These findings suggest that other teachers perceive student teachers from Mwenge Catholic University to be competent. This competence could be a result of the way they are taught at the university and their own commitment and hardworking spirit. This perceived competence of the teacher trainees could be the reason for their acceptance in the secondary schools where they go to teach. The teaching practice committee has rarely received cases of teacher trainees rejected or denied placement by secondary schools. Messages from heads of schools have been positive, and academic masters of many schools welcome this caliber of student teacher during the teaching practice time.
The monitors were asked also to provide comments about the performance of MWECAU's students in teaching practice. They pointed out the following aspects: 1. Teacher trainees were ready to practice actual teaching as everyone was present for classroom observations. 2. MWECAU teacher trainees could improvise teaching materials from local available resources to simplify the teaching and learning process. 3. Teacher trainees were receptive to feedback during comment sessions after the classroom observation. 4. The monitors' suggestions for improvement were incorporated in the trainees' practice, including improving lesson plans and work objectives; and aiding in writing assessment columns when necessary. 5. Monitors recommended MWECAU teacher trainees for their level of commitment and professionalism with respect to becoming responsible and accountable teachers. 6. The BTP monitors were happy with MWECAU trainees' ability to teach appropriate and relevant content based on the students' level of understanding and cognitive abilities.

Usefulness of monitoring activity:-
The BTP coordinating team purposely selected a small sample of schools from Arusha, Siha, Hai, Mwanga, Vunjo, and Rombo to provide feedback from teacher trainees about the monitoring activity. Data were collected from the teacher trainees who were only selected from the schools that hosted monitors. The data represented specific areas, namely, the assistance of monitors in improving lesson preparation and planning, communication skills, engagement of students during lessons, and evaluation and personal factors. A total of 200 novice teachers provided feedback, and the findings are summarized in Table 6.  Table 6 shows that monitors' feedback was extremely beneficial to students on how to improve lesson planning and lesson preparations. This result is reflected in 80% of the responses, indicating that feedback was very helpful, while 15% of respondents said feedback was helpful and 5% said it was -sometimes was useful.‖ On improving communication skills during teaching and evaluation, a majority (65%) of the teacher trainees found that the presence of monitors was very helpful and that they learned from them.
With respect to engagement in the lesson, 90% of teacher trainees responded that the presence of monitors in their lessons gave them confidence in using different techniques of engaging students in the lessons. They said that monitors encouraged them to apply most of their learner-centered techniques that promote student participation during the lesson, including bicycle chain, think pair share, small group discussion, and question and answers, among many others. On the assessment of lesson progress, novice teachers (75%) acknowledged that the monitoring process was very helpful in bringing to their attention more skills and techniques to evaluate their lessons during teaching. They added that they were able to competently assess their lesson's progress from the beginning to completion. However, the novice teachers appreciated the visits of monitors to the schools, as it helped them to improve their personal factors, such as dress code, stress management, instructional leadership, dealing with student discipline, and time management. Some 85% of the respondents indicated that monitors' feedback was very helpful to them in improving personal behavior and teacher professional attitudes.
Feedback on how to improve the monitoring process:-Student teachers were asked to suggest areas that need improvement and what steps would be appropriate. The goal was to make the monitoring process more relevant to achieve its intended goals. Different views were given, as represented in Figure 6.  Figure 6 show that 189 (94.5%) of the students pointed out that the monitoring activity should be expanded to all the schools where students go for teaching practice. This would allow every student to be monitored, thus helping to improve and enhance teacher preparation and teaching effectiveness. Currently, not all the schools have been assigned monitors because there are not enough of them compared to the number of students who are engaged in teaching practice. Therefore, some students miss this opportunity of being observed and assisted by monitors.
Many students (104, or 52%) suggested that there was a need to increase the number of monitoring visits from two to three. Currently, monitors are required to conduct two visits for each student during the teaching practice. The first visit is done during the second week, and the second one during the third week. The fourth and the fifth weeks are left for university assessors to do classroom observation. This arrangement would still be possible if the number of monitoring visits was increased. Thus, the duration for teaching practice would need to be increased to accommodate the three visits and leave time for university assessors to make observations.

Feedback from heads of schools on BTP
The BTP coordinating team selected heads of schools from Arusha, Siha, Hai, Mwanga, Vunjo, and Rombo, who were used as a basis for obtaining feedback toward overall monitoring activities. Data were collected from heads of schools on (a) the way monitoring activities were conducted in schools, (b) the ability of monitors in coaching student teachers during BTP in schools, and (c) the likelihood of the monitoring activity in improving BTP. The findings are summarized in Table 7. In Table 7, the data show that most heads of school appreciated the way the monitoring activity was conducted during teaching practice. This is reflected by the 65% of heads of schools who responded that it was very good while 18% said it was good, and 15% responded that it was excellent. Only 2% responded that monitoring was fairly conducted. These responses imply that the monitoring activity was done as directed during orientation.
On the ability of the monitors to coaching student teachers during BTP, the majority (54%) of the heads of schools indicated that monitors had a very good ability to coach trainees, 26% indicated that monitors had good ability, and 20% indicated that the monitors showed excellent ability. This means that monitors effectively used the skills they learned during orientation.
With respect to the likelihood of the monitoring activity in improving teaching practice, 68% of heads of school responded positively, that is, there is a very good chance that the monitoring activity improves teaching practice. Some 30% responded that there is an excellent chance of monitoring activity improving teaching practice, while a few of them (2%) responded that there is a good chance that with continued training of monitors, teaching practice will improve significantly. Table 8 provides data from heads of school regarding the conduct of student teachers. Interpersonal relationships with other staff 69.2% 30.5% 0% Table 8 shows that most heads of schools rated the four items with attributes such as -excellent‖ and -good.‖ This observation means that most of the students scrupulously followed what they were taught at the university. Few responses rated the students as -poor.‖

Discussion and Concluding Remarks:-
The present study examined BTP experience in teacher education that involved cluster monitors. The goal of the study was to find out what student teachers did during BTP and whether the clinical experience later improved their teaching effectiveness. Some viewpoints in teacher education-clinical experiences, effective teaching, and monitors as mentors were scrutinized. The study documented the BTP process of examining the dynamic features of teacher education and the field experience of teaching practice. In addition, the study examined theories that support and inform effective teaching in the attempt to develop a framework or rubric of BTP. An analysis of reports gathered from BTP monitors revealed that there are many stakeholders involved in mentoring novice teachers, and their interdependent relationships need to be considered if improvement of teaching is to happen.
BTP in Tanzania occurs when student teachers are placed in primary or secondary schools to teach subjects with a cooperating teacher for a pre-determined period. The placement of cluster monitors in schools during BTP offered another opportunity to collaborate with the classroom teacher to mentor beginning teachers. A team of master teachers, known as cluster monitors, were purposely selected from a cluster of schools dedicated to improve BTP in Tanzania. After initial training in pedagogy and learner-centered approaches, the monitors were assigned schools in which they would mentor novice teachers during teaching practice. Different groups in the education sector, including heads of schools, university lecturers, education officers, and funding agencies, broadly supported this experiment in Tanzania.
The study found that, ordinarily, teaching activities were designed to allow student teachers to put in practice their disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge in respective disciplinary subjects of specialization (e.g., language arts, physics, chemistry, or biology). Monitors observed that student teachers also practiced other skills during the clinical experience, such as classroom management. Students engaged in activities like assuming the roles of the class teacher, teachers on duty, and any other responsibilities germane to the smooth running of the school as directed by the leadership of the host school.
Key findings of this study revealed that: 1. Even though an -effective‖ teacher is desired in every classroom, to develop a model or rubric that produces an effective teacher, or a framework that integrates key ingredients of teaching practice (good classroom 1104 management, organization, effective planning, commitment to the profession, and teacher's personal characteristics) to yield an effective teacher, was complex and daunting. 2. Attention to relevant policies and homegrown master teachers to monitor the student teacher has the potential to develop excellence in teaching effectiveness and improving the quality of classroom teaching. In addition, the study concedes that more schools in the network need to -buy in‖ to this experiment to make a difference in the preparation of teachers in Tanzania. 3. The introduction of cluster monitors helped to develop principles or rubrics that identify the effective teacher.
Comments from monitors regarding the performance of students in teaching practice showed that teacher trainees were ready to practice teaching with high standards. 4. Teacher trainees could improvise and use locally available teaching materials to make difficult topics easy to understand, as effective teachers would do. 5. Teacher trainees were receptive to being monitored and ready to receive feedback after classroom observations. 6. Monitors observed that teacher trainees had a high level of commitment and professionalism toward becoming responsible and accountable teachers. 7. The BTP monitors found that trainees' ability to teach appropriately, using relevant content based on the students' level of understanding and cognitive abilities, was a good indicator of future effective teachers. 8. Heads of schools indicated that the role of monitors as mentors was critical in achieving success in teaching.
To sum up these concluding remarks, it is important to mention several lessons garnered from this study. First, the study described in this article is far from complete, nor are the findings conclusive. More work is needed using different tools and methodologies to determine whether the project of improving teaching effectiveness is possible; more evidence of the contributions of BTP needs to be exposed. This study is a step forward in this endeavour, and frameworks have been assembled. However, the materials reviewed showed a continuous theme that cuts across the literature. Effective teaching is tentative and possible but it depends on many factors to accomplish. The goal is to constantly aim to improve the quality of teaching.
In sum, the study revealed that qualities of effective teachers are well known and have been organized into lists (see Myalla, 2014). Tips for teaching effectiveness have been highlighted (see Hildebrand et al. 1971). Many examples that provide a rubric for effective teaching are available everywhere-such as -Top five qualities of effective teachers, according to students‖ (see Peterson-DeLuca, 2016); -What effective teachers do right (see MINT, 2010, Rule 6B-1.001); and -Five teaching effectiveness principles‖ (Friesen, 2009, p. 7-12). The various characteristics or qualities of effective teaching appear repeatedly in studies, and the quest continues. This fact explains our proposition in this study that teaching effectiveness is complex and daunting.
Second, this study brought a new awareness to a complex issue in teacher education. For example, Seidel and Shavelson's (2007) research on teaching effectiveness in the past decade is enlightening and significant. An important lesson to gather from the previous studies is that our study's findings shed light on future research studies. In Table 9, we have compared tips for teaching effectiveness (Hildebrand et al. 1971) to the findings from the present study.  Ability in setting objectives clearly & appropriately which are related to syllabus  Ability to devise and use a variety of procedures to evaluate progress in the lesson  Attitude toward students (courteous, helpful, giving praise, encouragement, use of names) ANALYTIC/SYNTHETIC APPROACH  has a thorough command of the field  contrasts the implications of various theories  gives the student a sense of the field, its past, present, and future directions, the origins of ideas and concepts  Ability to use teaching aids such as models, posters, worksheets, science equipment, cards, etc.  Ability to present accurate subject matter and differentiated tasks  Ability to promote full participation of students through a variety of interaction patterns 1105  presents facts and concepts from related fields  discusses viewpoints other than his/her own  Observed factors such as general appearance and confidence DYNAMISM AND ENTHUSIASM  is an energetic, dynamic person  seems to enjoy teaching  conveys a love of the field  has an aura of self-confidence  Building a good relationship with the schools  Ability to use effectively a variety of appropriate teaching/ learning methods/ activities  Speaking and communication skills (loudness, clarity, lucidity) ability to give instructions.

INSTRUCTOR-GROUP INTERACTION
 can stimulate, direct, and pace interaction with the class  encourages independent thought and accepts criticism  uses wit and humor effectively  is a good public speaker  knows whether or not the class is following the material and is sensitive to students' motivation  is concerned about the quality of his/her teaching  Ability to ask questions orally  Ability to use the chalkboard  Ability to use correct, appropriate English and to be understood by students  Observed punctuality, class control  INSTRUCTOR-INDIVIDUAL STUDENT INTERACTION  is perceived as fair, especially in his/her methods of evaluation  is seen by students as approachable and a valuable source of advice even on matters not directly related to the course  seems genuinely interested in students; respects them as individuals  Ability to organize students  Ability to stimulate and handle students' questions  Ability in selecting resources to write notes with relevant subject content and examples appropriate to level of class Third, the comparison between Hildebrand's effective teaching and BTP's abilities of effective teaching shows that despite the use of different terminologies, there is a need to aspire constantly to become an effective teacher. This study therefore shows that the comments gathered from the cluster monitors of BTP inform the general direction that student teachers would seek to become effective teachers. Studies from other parts of the world inform the present study and confirm the complexity of teaching effectiveness that cluster monitors discovered in observing the BTP student teachers.
Previously, we noted that teaching effectiveness is at the core of the discourses of improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools. Evidently, the findings of this study barely scratch the surface of a complex question. The methods employed did not go far enough to draw a definitive relationship-through correlation analysis, logistical regression analysis, or determinant analysis-to evidence relationships or establish the chief factors that account for teaching effectiveness in BTP. This task is impending and necessary for future studies in this arena. Further, this study reminds us that all stakeholders' roles are integral to achieving effective outcomes both for themselves and for the pre-service teachers (Seidel, & Shavelson, 2007).
However, inconclusive results of these attempts to establish teaching effectiveness in BTP and the role of monitors as mentors of novice teachers cannot prevent teacher educators and officials of the ministry of education and other related institutes and agencies from exploring innovative strategies that promote effective teaching and quality education.