ARCHITECTURE OF NEW MOSQUE- A DESIGN PROPOSAL OF MOSQUE IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA

Thisstudy examines the parameters to analyze the form of local mosques in 21st century India. Since the advent of Mughals in India, mosque architecture has been immensely celebrated due to the fact that many inventions happened in building techniques and styles. Till today it has continued, though implicitly, and has been absorbed in the architecture of mosques which are mostly locally built. This is evident from their forms, especially, replicating those arches, minarets and domes. So, in this scenario, the question is what should be the form of local mosques in contemporary India when Islamic countries like Bangladesh, despite regarded as a developing country, is building creatively innovative and modern mosques? To respond to the question, local mosques built after the 1970s in India and Bangladesh are selected based upon their funding, year of construction, number of occupants, and built-up area. They are analyzed according to parameters of the form of mosques deduced from the literature study. According to results after analysis, it is found that there is a high grade of religious symbolism that is still prevalent in India unlike in Bangladesh. Besides, there is no participation of local people in mosque construction as well as in design with no interaction with the architects and clients who are involved in the process. The idea of Postmodernism and its features seems to have no role when local mosques in India are analyzed.

Thisstudy examines the parameters to analyze the form of local mosques in 21 st century India. Since the advent of Mughals in India, mosque architecture has been immensely celebrated due to the fact that many inventions happened in building techniques and styles. Till today it has continued, though implicitly, and has been absorbed in the architecture of mosques which are mostly locally built. This is evident from their forms, especially, replicating those arches, minarets and domes. So, in this scenario, the question is what should be the form of local mosques in contemporary India when Islamic countries like Bangladesh, despite regarded as a developing country, is building creatively innovative and modern mosques? To respond to the question, local mosques built after the 1970s in India and Bangladesh are selected based upon their funding, year of construction, number of occupants, and built-up area. They are analyzed according to parameters of the form of mosques deduced from the literature study. According to results after analysis, it is found that there is a high grade of religious symbolism that is still prevalent in India unlike in Bangladesh. Besides, there is no participation of local people in mosque construction as well as in design with no interaction with the architects and clients who are involved in the process. The idea of Postmodernism and its features seems to have no role when local mosques in India are analyzed.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….... Introduction:-
All the religions that exist around the world have religious symbols that contribute to their architecture. This has continued over the years in the same or different ways. Soon after modernism was introduced in architecture, there was a surge among architects, clients and people to accept the changes that it bought in terms of appearance. This had a different interpretation when the religion of Islam was considered. As we know, the mosque is one of the greatest and noteworthy visual illustrations of Muslim religious identity across the globe, but it is still following the same, old and conventional methods in its architecture without any significant development. Talking about India, because it is the area of consideration for this dissertation, the condition was far less improved. Since Postmodernism came to existence, people were not participating to elevate the status of Muslim identity and relying on architects for its building who lacked consciousness towards its design and construction.It is prevalent today where mostly locally commissioned mosques are built. Clients rely on architects and demand modern mosques 539 without any clarity in their imaginations while architects simply replicate the traditional elements like dome, minarets, and arches in the mosque without any understanding of local construction techniques and aspirations of local people. This results in conventional and old looking forms of mosques which neither reflects local architecture nor modernity. It is a peculiar and eclectic style of architecture with onion domes and green color that maligns the true essence of form and its function. Hence, this paper focuses on finding out the form of mosques in 21 st century India built by local communities. It will help an architect and layman to understand necessary parameters that are needed and must be followed to achieve a form that follows ideas of local people as well the architecture. It will help in motivating architects to create innovative and rational forms without alienating them from the built forms in the vicinity. The objective will be to understand the parameters required to analyze the form of mosques in India, based on which selected cases will be studied. After that, issues will be identified based on which design solutions will be recommended.
Significance 1. The findings will redound to the benefit in the arena of architecture by helping in proposing form of mosques in 21 st century India. 2. The findings will also help to focus on variables that create opportunities for innovation and new ideas when designing mosques in India at present time.

Problem
1. Local mosques are being designed by replicating traditional elements like domes, minarets and arches. 2. No modern intervention and development are taking place i.e. easily identifiable and recognizable form of mosques are being produced. 3. There is lack of interaction among local people, architects and clients.
Need 1. To address the issues that prevail in defining the form of local mosques which are being built in 21 st century India. Results will help in finding the parameters that will govern the form of mosques in contemporary India keeping the issues in consideration. 2. To change preconceived notion of mosque of being a symbol of Muslim faith, its function as a place for offering prayers and conventional methods of replication achieve their desired form.
Why Mosques?  Only local mosques are being constructed in India with no recent developments while measures that are implemented are not being acknowledged.  As a result, elements of mosques are only being replicated with implementation of conventional design features, thus producing an eclectic form.  It helps to direct as a representation of Islam as well space for social gathering, teaching and learning.

Methodology: -Form in Architecture
Form is a vital characteristic of any composition, in architecture. It not only affects the perception of an individual who sees it but also used to convey meanings with it. According to (Bacon, 1974) , he states: "Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space … Architectural forms, textures, materials, modulation of light and shade, colour, all combine to inject a quality or spirit that articulates space.
The quality of the architecture will be determined by the skill of the designer in using and relating these elements, both in the interior spaces and in the spaces around buildings." (Ching, 1943, p. 33) Hence, form is a vast word which has number of meanings-(a)Form can denote an apparent appearance that may be recognized when an individual perceives it (b)It may also advocate to a condition in which about things act in order to be seen.

RESEARCH QUESTION
 What are the parameters that will govern form of local mosques in contemporary India?
 How will these parameters be implemented?

Formal collisions of geometry
When two or more forms contradictory in geometry collide with each other"s borders, the resultant will have some "visual dominance" reflecting those geometries. Hence this phenomenon is termed as formal collisions of geometry.

Axis
It is defined as an imaginary line defined by two points about which forms are organized in symmetrical or asymmetrical manner.

Symmetry
It is defined as a balanced allocation and organization of equivalent/ equal forms on either side of a separating plane or, line or about an axis or center. This line can be imaginary or physical.

Hierarchy
It is defined as an articulation of forms and spaces corresponding to another forms or spaces in an organization with respect to size, shape or position.

Balance
It provides visual stability to the form by placing elements constituting the form in balanced manner with respect to its colour, texture and shape.

Emphasis
It is created when one or more elements are used to convey virtual dominance or supremacy by colour, size, texture, shape etc.

Harmony
It is defined as a property of sameness or belonging of one element with another. It can be achieved by unity or variety. Unity in terms of colour even though variety is present due to shapes; unity in terms of shape but variety due to colours. In both ways, there is harmony among design elements. Origin of mosques Many historians and scholars believe that Islam originated in Middle eastern lands. In Qur"an and hadiths, there is no reference of how a mosque must be constructed or what should be its form. "There is no prescription for a mosque in the holy text in the Qur"an"says Akel Ismail Kahera associate professor at the University School of Architecture in Texas (Dickinson, 2012). The only recommendation mentioned is how one must pray while facing towards Mecca. Mosques that we see today are a result of constant change that took place since it was first built due to climate, economy, power, materials and building technique, number of occupants, socio-cultural factors etc. Initially, Arabs were nomads in which everything that they owned had to be portable. At that time when Islam was gaining prevalence, only "a square area marked by a line-formed area for communal prayer." The prayer completed only by fulfilling basic requirement of facing the direction to Mecca. At the start, they were opposed to the idea of building because of their nomadic lifestyle. But as the time passed and Islam gained prominence, the followers increased and a need for a shelter arose among the people. The, then, Caliph was advised to openly practice their religion and, thus, he ordered the construction of a congregational space which began to be known as Mosque. (essays, 2018) "A mosque or masjid (in Arabic) is a place where a Muslim prostrate and perform their obligatory prayer. The word masjid in Arabic comes from the verb "sajada" which means to prostate."(A Suratkon, 2019, p. 1)  "Hypostyle hall with flat roof" or sometimes with one or more smaller domes as evident in Arabian and African examples and early Anatolian mosques.

Evolution of mosques Concept of a mosque
Buildings having a "large central space, covered by a huge dome" laterally supported by weight of half-domes, which are most common in the Ottoman style, or "having pyramidal pitched roofs" as evident in examples from Indonesia.
The arrangement of an "iwan (vaulted hall)" placed on either side of a symmetrically divided enormous and centrally located rectangular courtyard as seen in Iran as well as in Central Asia.
The "triple-domed mosque with large courtyard" acting as a large public place for gathering and congregational prayer which is a typical feature of Mughal architecture in India.
The complex enclosed by walls, inside which pavilions are located in bounded spaces that are found in China.

Why was the change?
Despite common features, such as mihrabs and minarets, there is a history of diverse regional styles that accounted forenigmatic differences in the colours, materials, and ornamentation of mosques. This varied from region to region depending upon: Scale of the building, number of occupants, area available, economy, power, need, climate. (essays, 2018) Difference is seen because of variety of secular functions at different locations; symbolic values; expression of identity by different communities.
Additions were done due to Social, climatic, cultural, political, economic conditions that resulted in forms as seen in Figure 6.

Consistency was maintained only in
Orientation and the way an individual offers the Namaaz, spatial organization-a large prayer hall which is orientating towards Mecca. Function, spaces and requirements besides this were subjected to change. (Alamiri, 2017) N COVERED SPACE OPEN SPACE 545 Figure 6:-Mosque typology around the world, Source:www.slideshare.net/shahrilkhairi/history-of-islamicarchitecture

Parameters to analyse form of mosques
In addition to general parameters required to analyze any form, following are the elements of mosque architecture and furnishings. (Frishman & Khan, 1994) and (Renata Holod, 1997)

Portal
It is the entrance gateway to any mosque. It acts as an element to differentiate between a spiritual sanctuary and urban life. It is often celebrated by extravagant ornamentation and scale.

Courtyard
An open to sky space known as sahn which is surrounded by colonnades and arcades.

Pond/ ablution area
It is a feature which is most often seen in the middle of a courtyard in mosques. The purpose is to use it for ablutions (or wudu) before prayers and it can sometimes be purely decorative/ non-functional.

Prayer hall
It is a roofed hall to accommodate worshippers for congregation prayers. The size is completely governed by number of worshippers and climate. The space definition of a prayer hall is credited to columns (hypostyle hall), wall (qibla wall and minbar), roof (dome), windows (clerestory windows).

Qibla wall
The prayer hall should consist of a wall that must face Mecca i.e.to the west.

Mihrab
At mid-point of Qibla wall, a niche is created to indicate the direction of prayer for the worshipper. Its form is stimulated by Roman niche, from the time when people started ornamenting it.

Minbar
Also called as pulpit, is a raised platform at the right to mihrab, where the imam stands for khutba (oration).

Kursi
It is a low height podium on which Qur"an is kept while the person deployed, reads and recites verses from Quran.

Dikka
A wooden podium of single storey which is positioned in line with mihrab, reached by stairs which is attached to it.

Maqsura
It consisted of raised platform with protective screening during olden times.

Minaret
The tower used by muezzin to call for prayer besides its function to act as a landmark thus acting as focal point of area in which mosque is located.

Dome
It was invented much later to make the prayer hall look grand and feel more magnificent. It was added much later to endorse a comfortable environment for worshippers.

Arches
A building technique to create openings, often created to support long span systems. In Islamic architecture, arches hold a special place. They can be seen heavily ornamented as in mihrab, fenestrations and niches. Architecturally, they act as a scaling element.
It is important to note that not all the elements mentioned above contribute to form of mosques, for example, dikka, minbar, kursi, Maqsura. They have been considered only as a minor parameter as it contributes as an element of mosques. Similarly, parameters like, qibla wall, arches, dome, minaret, mihrab, courtyard, prayer hall, portal and ablution area are the major parameters that contribute to form of mosques. Hence, they are thoroughly analyzed. Introduction of postmodernism in design of mosques around the world Postmodernism style of architecture had a profound influence on a lot of young architects and wealthy clients. Since it was adopted much later than it started,history of destruction and war developed a surge to create new while still connecting to the history/ old. This helped in creating awareness among the stakeholders and renew theircultural identities. According to (Khan, 2008), countries arose with idea of creating new when world was experiencing war, distribution and everywhere identification played animportant role. This helped in modernising but it was not rooted to history, hence, postmodernism evolved as a solution.The idea of Postmodernism was to create buildings that relate to context as well (but not something very usual) which might become cause of a bigger problem.It was easy to use familiar elements for creating similar forms of mosques which is very usual as it is in many mosques around the world (from Indonesia to North America).But architects, who were promoting postmodernism,relentlessly tried to convince that the expression is secondary, and qualitative identity is important. Henceforth architects tried to achieve balance between old and new rationally by taking references only to get inspiration and not to duplicate or recreate history. How are mosques being designed in the world? From 1970s-present When we examine the present scenario, certain things are quite alarming. According to (Fethi, 1985, pp. 52-63)the tradition and vernacular culture of building any built structure is dying. It is becoming nothing but merely an exception in today"s construction when a structure complies with the norms of traditional and vernacular architecture. Earlier it was on interaction of builders and craftsmen and people but now it has become the product of "machine aesthetics" based on universal system of clients, architects and contractors.

Result:-
As a result, the forms of mosques that is being developed exhibit a different characteristic which does not look to be in coherence with the local architecture and lacks participation of people. Lack of consciousness in design of mosques has led to long-lasting consequences which needs immediate attention. Ihsan Fethi further, in his article "The Mosque Today" mentions the following 1. The product is eclectic, or is easily identifiable (because of the form it achieves, elements used as symbols).
2. Or the result is either standardized, stereotyped building devoid of any "valid symbolism". Generally, developing a form which categorizes a style that is completely irrational or duplicate. (Fethi, 1985) 3. Lack of governance leading to carelessness in designing of mosques. 4. Due to lack of architectural guidance to municipality and contractors leading to hybrid mosques which are strongly eclectic in nature.

548
At present, forms of mosques are products of only certain ideas and methods that are conceived by specific people and they are products of the machine world accelerated by technology. Thus, enabling us to look into miscommunication that exists among local people and those who are responsible for building it.
Since late 19 th century, mosque acts as a freestanding monument occupying a whole city block, primarily because of the fact that the urban fabric around which it is situated has started to westernise. Even though it may look like a mosque but on in-depth examined, it appears to be unusual as if alienated from the surrounding context. Truly stating, urbanisation has greatly affected its function as a spiritual and social centre as well as on its architecture. (Fethi, 1985) Trends leading to forms at present No matter how much the word has developed, religious symbolism seems to hold its stance and continue to have a place in some or the other ways. Elements like prayer hall, domes, minarets and arches seem to have undergone modern interventions while elements like courtyards, ablution area have been either reduced or neglected depending upon need and alternatives designed. As far as design principles are concerned, they are prominent as many architects are conscious enough to incorporate them in order to make a composition achieve visual balance. It has been analyzed by Hasan Uddin Khan that in present forms of mosques, certain characteristics are either missing or not worked upon. This can be seen in disappearance of outer wall and gateway. Besides that, demarcation from profane to sacred is lost because either courtyard is omitted or its size has shrunk over time. Minarets are being used not because of some architectural importance but only for the sake of using it and to depict religious symbolism. Dome without any valid symbolism and architectural importance even though some architects have tried to incorporate them with modern techniques for intake of light and air to create dramatic prayer halls as in Faisal Mosque, Pakistan; Yesil Vadi Mosque, Turkey; Baitur-rauf Mosque, Bangladesh, Shahporan Masjid in London. According to (Khan, 2008)Canadian-Pakistan architect Gulzar Haider speaks of mosque architecture without obvious and explicit traditional elements. But when people are taken into consideration they expect domes and minaret so that it can be perceived as a mosque. Hassan Uddin Khan continues to mention that people"s perception has a primary role in the form of mosques. He quotes certain examples with reference to people of China and Indonesia regarding how they interpret the forms of mosques. He continues to mention that dome of a mosque built in 2000s in China is used as a sign of presence of Islam. It had no relation with interior of the mosque. The community is so conscious that dome and minaret is required such without which the definition and form of mosque will be incomplete.
By above discussion, the inference that can be drawn is that it is not always about a building but rather about people, region and place to which that buildings belongs.

How are mosques being designed in India? (From 1970s-present)
India was invaded by a Persian ruler, who belonged to a region where the monumentality of mosque was celebrated, in order to showcase their power. Similar ideology transferred in India when landmarks started to build. As the economy of the kingdoms strengthened, kings started offering mosques to the people. This means that people were given, they were not involved. Having stated that, climate also played a major role in mosque development in India.
According to (Renata Holod, 1997), the development of mosques has been categorised by the author under five heads named as: "personal patronage, the state as client, commission by local government bodies, mosques for public and commercial institutions, local community projects." This helps in vivid understanding of development of the forms of mosques in terms of scale and its funding. He further mentions that as far as India is concerned, local community projects are being undertaken in large numbers because people belonging to wealthy class are not taking steps to contribute in mosque development. This behaviour leads to not so intimidating scale, which is acceptable also, because monumental mosques can never bridge the gap of lack of association which exist among the people Muslim community. Besides, it also depends on power and stable economy. Further, it depends upon the architects as well i.e. on their ability to design. Here, people"s consent is not addressed and design is based on architect"s memory of a typical mosque while introducing his ideas. (Renata Holod, 1997, pp. 183-184) Hence, this is a gap that exists forcing the development style in local community projects to be called Pan-Islamic architectural style which involves recognizable and universal features which are eclectic in nature that sometimes alienates such places of worship from their context.

How are mosques being designed in Muslim countries? (From 1970s-present)
Postmodernism started as a style against the idea of modernism, urging architects not to eliminate the use of conventional and traditional elements and contextual elements in design of the built form. Similar ideology was accepted in design of mosques worldwide to renew the expression when world was experiencing war and separation.According to (Rabbat, 2012, pp. 8-11), postmodernism in Muslim countries concretized articulation of ideology that saw ISLAM as an identity.Islamic countries till 1940s were dominant and had no influx of development.But after discoveries of oil in the Gulf region, there was a surge to modernise the country through architecture. In this case, the only option was mosque through which they were able to represent themselves as independent states.The Arabs already had deep religious and conservative outlook. This led to contemporary yet visually recognizable Islamic Architecture of mosques.
Hence, 1980s became the decade of identifiable Islamic Postmodern architecture in the Islamic world. Inference-Under constant control of Arab merchants and community, architects were still relying on traditional elements and religious symbols.International firms were coming up and they were dip into awe of Postmodernism and produced "loud and formalist composition." The forms produced were modernised in terms of materials and construction techniques.

Selection criteria for Bangladesh
The reason behind taking Bangladesh is that it has been greatly influenced by Postmodernism and has a history of people being actively involved in mosque building much before Postmodernism unlike other countries in Indian subcontinent. Mosques are generally of varying scales i.e. from intermediate to low scale. South East Asian countries have not been taken because they have a hot and humid ortropical climate throughout the year unlike in Bangladesh and India. Besides that, the contemporary mosque are mostly state funded and nationally funded projects leading to large scale mosques. According to scope of the dissertation, only local mosques will be studied since in India, most mosques are locally funded leading to low scale of mosques.

Recent developments in mosques of Bangladesh
James Steele and Ismail Serageldin in their book "Architecture of Contemporary Mosque" explains that the Mosque architecture of Bangladesh is not an impressive style or large-scale architecture as in North India, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, 550 Turkey, Syria etc. Even though it was, to some extent, sympathetic to its local climate, tradition and self-expression. What Bangladeshi people achieved, may not be a great style, but its construction principles were sound, appearances were original. The close relationship with the Bengali hut can hardly go unnoticed which was peculiarly suitable to the climate and the purpose for which it was intended. It is clear that technologically and culturally nobody can live in segregation. Without passionate respect and deep roots in one's own culture and the heritage of the people, it is not probably possible to sustain a creative life.
According to (M.Ahmed, 2006)Bangladesh, having the distinction of being the home to the highest density of Muslims per square kilometre in the world, has been known for its contribution to the world cultural heritage, especially, with regards to mosque architecture. Further, Michael Snyder explains in an article for New York Times, the perceptible and impalpable characteristics of contemporary mosques in Bangladesh. He mentions that prayer spaces are designed in order to be connected to climate and light comes in from all sides. People design their own mosques here in times wherever it is required. This is because many times it happens that funding is done in stages; therefore, it is not possible for it to be constructed in single slot of time. People often participate in designing, construction work helping masons with construction, materials and other site related works. When Eastern Bengal mosques i.e. present-day Bangladesh is considered, mosques there, were centre of civic life. With this he continues to mention that this change happened after the Sufi missionaries arrived in 13th century. Starting from 13th century till 16th century, Bengali Sultanate mosques in brick are left in Bangladesh as landmark and trendsetters in Bangladesh. When Mughal reign ended, the country was left with several structures built by them i.e. till the end of 18th century. But vernacular architecture of Bengal was credited to mangroves, shifting soil, thatched roof, storms, mud and bamboo, open sided-pavilions. All these elements succumbed to extreme climate of Bangladesh leaving only strong structures behind. As far as form of a mosque is concerned, they were rigid, with very less light in the interior, sometimes many pavilions were constructed, especially during Sufism. They used local materials with less monumental mosques. All these characteristics have been incorporated with no or slight modifications with same proportions and scale to design the contemporary mosques. However, this country seems to look like a modern invention. After tragic war of 1960s it came out as a new and developing country. This is due to increase in their economy coming from the textile industries. Bangladesh won independence in 1971. Michael explains that during that time, the country had a different but austere custom of mosque architecture that "relied on Turkish domes, beaked Mughal Arches and Arab minarets." This was easily named as a shorthand of Pan-Islamic. It remained consistent for long time but there was a problem. The issue that persisted is that it was never in concurrence with Bengali people itself. But robust, modernist tradition of building in Bangladesh started when architect Mazharul-Islam, who was trained in America, invited many Western architects including Louis I. Kahn. When these architects started to inspect, "traditional and nature-oriented forms," began to be found. This discovery stimulated these architects to get inspired by them and amalgamate these features with modern ideas to create postmodern structures. The result was that Brick as a material gained prominence while concrete was used to build simple and inexpensive structures.(Snyder, May 9, 2019)

Result:-
This country has plethora of ideas in terms of modernism and postmodernism for architects to imbibe. Since Bangladesh has been formed, the roots are in Modernism and Postmodernism which has been inculcated in local architects as well. Hence, whatever new ideas they have, it eventually gets mixed with modern concepts.As far as mosques are considered, spaces were religious at that time and modern movement of building was secular. This gap was filled with help of economy of the country which progressed because of textile industries. So, most mosques, that are being built are given as charity by wealthy merchants on private lands by public commissions as well as their money. According to (Snyder, May 9, 2019) when military government ruled the country from 1975-1991, most mosque projects were commissioned by those rulers so they were designed for political resolutions and used a discountedsymbolic language thus laden with great deal of religious symbolism and religious extremism.Architecture of these mosques are now being raised around Modernist aesthetic but early mosques of this type were not built with secularist instinct. Nevertheless now, in last 20 years, patrons and architects that are hired have brought this secularism in religious sphere when world is trapped in irrational extremism. The results are the most inventive and aesthetically pleasingradical designs that surpass these irrelevant ideologies.

Prayer hall by Louis I. Kahn in Parliament Complex in Dhaka (1982)
According to (Snyder, May 9, 2019, pp. 1-3) the importance and impact of the architecture of Dhaka Assembly Hall by Louis. I. Kahn has also been emphasized. He mentions that when Louis I. Kahn started the design of Dhaka Assembly Hall in 1962, he made sure that a prayer hall must be included, which later became the most celebrated 551 design of a prayer hall across the globe. The author explains some of the characteristics of Dhaka Assembly prayer hall that resembles features of Postmodern architecture style. A lofty cube, with its corners inserted into huge hollow cylinders acting as columns, thus defining prayer hall. The prayer hall is actually a large study room with an area convertible to prayer hall, with sunlight entering the interior and creating dramatic experience. Eight high and huge circular windows twisted about its corners, the "continuations of their arcs spreading into the hollow columns" like flying buttresses.Direct sunlight enters in through hollow columns and spurs over concrete slab that were hand casted.Triangular squinches as used in construction of domes, angle up from the corners, just to give a glimpse as if dome is about to begin which does not really seem to happen.Instead of dome, Kahn used octagon, an approximation to dome and the most eternal representation of Islamic architecture, over the floor of assembly hall which is a "vaulted octagonal structure" rising 117 feet over a space dedicated to assembly employees. The assembly hall is majestic in contrast to which the mosque is contemplative. By this type of architecture, without any doubt, it would takeyears in Bangladesh to build such a religious space as inventive as it could be.    These parameters will be used to analyze form of mosques of selected case studies and live study. Inferences from literature study 1. Postmodernism has been an important concept in determining form of mosques around the world by discarding the practice of using traditional and conventional elements in form of mosques. 2. Mosques around the world are either standardized, or stereotyped building devoid of any "valid symbolism".

Parameters of form of mosques built by local communities in contemporary India
These mosques differ from each other by the type of funding, area of land, number of occupants, year of construction, climate, and socio-cultural factors. 3. However, climate and socio-cultural factors provides rather similar forms extending to wider regional borders whereas type of funding, area of land, number of occupants, and year of construction are the factors that will result in greater deviation in form of mosques. 4. Bangladesh has plethora of ideas in terms of modernism and postmodernism for architects to imbibe. 5. There is no participation of people in building and designing of mosques in India unlike Bangladesh.  553 Selection Criteria Type of funding As found, from the literature most mosques that are being constructed are locally funded mosques i.e. by the local people. Hence, in order to find the type of mosque which should be built in India, we need to study locally commissioned mosques.

Year of construction:
Since the research is limited to the time of postmodernism hence, mosques that are/were built in 1970s-present, have been studied.

Area of mosque
According to area, the form of mosques changes and most mosques that are being built, cater to comparatively smaller number of people, due to lack of space and lack of money. Hence only those mosques are studied whose area is <=1000 square meters.

Number of occupants
The number of occupants or worshippers in today"s scenario, are preferring to pray at home but this is not the case everywhere. Number only increases during Friday, congregational prayer. Hence only those mosques are studied where maximum people on Fridays are approximately <=1500 worshippers.

Locally commissioned project
This mosque was a dream project of the architect"s grandmother who donated land and funds for construction of this mosque. Later due to insufficient funds construction stopped, but local people started donating funds and it got constructed. The construction got completed in stages due to funding issues. As far as local people are concerned, they provided help to the architect in designing the mosque by checking the process and helping in execution work.

Year of construction
Since this mosque started in 2005 i.e. after postmodernism, hence this mosque is taken.

Area of mosque
The area of mosque is 750square meters because of land available.  Locally commissioned project This mosque was patronised by a wealthy merchant who wanted a modern mosque. Charity funds were started, hence there was sufficient money.

Year of construction
Since this mosque started in 2005 i.e. after postmodernism, hence this mosque is taken.

Area of mosque
The area of mosque is 1000 square metres because of land available.

Number of occupants
Normal days-300; Fridays: 800-900 men, and sometimes 10-12 women. Architect: Arif Shah Primary Construction material: Terracotta bricks Locally commissioned project: This mosque was patronised by a wealthy businessman of this city. After his death, his sons escalated the project. The project is unique in its own city as this city is known as "city of mosques" with many mosques built from 20 th century and onwards.
Year of construction: Since this mosque started in 2011 i.e. after postmodernism, hence this mosque is taken. Area of mosque: The area of mosque is 900 square metres which was bought by the patron. Number of occupants: Normal days-450; Fridays: 1000 men, and no women, even though a mezzanine floor is dedicated to them.

Locally commissioned project:
According to local people, client was a rich contractor, who had bought this land to construct a mosque in order to make the area (which was undergoing development that time) to become a known spot for people of Muslim community ad to mark a residential territory.

Year of construction:
Since this mosque started in 2000 i.e. after postmodernism, hence this mosque is taken.

Area of mosque:
The area of mosque is 900 square metres which was bought by the patron.

Number of occupants:
Normal days-450; Fridays: 1500 men, and no women.    Two mosques from Bangladesh were studied to understand how a country, whose architecture has its roots based on modernism and postmodernism, treat its mosque, which is an important symbol, that retains the identity of being an Islamic country. Similarly, two mosques from India were studied to understand how are local mosques being treated here. The study was based on the point mentioned above. On analysis of mosques and literature surveyed in Bangladesh and India, following points have been deduced:

Analysis and Inferences:-
Shape: Simple and bold geometries especially squares, rectangles and circles, have been used. Extruding them into robust forms have created compositions that respond to context-Inspiration from Modernism and Postmodernism which has been indirectly imbibed in them by works of architect Louis I Kahn. While in India as in case of Haji Abdur Rauf Mosque, architect hasused squares, rectangles, triangles and circles to create abstraction and depict interpretation of postmodernism. Instead, in Abu-Bakr Mosque, architect has used cuboids only -Inspiration from Modernism and Postmodernism but use of their ideologies superficially.
Colour&Texture: In Baitur Rauf Mosque, material was used in its pure form. The architect has used exposed brickwork that mimics the structures in vicinity -Ideology of Minimalism. Whileuse of brick or concrete in Indian local mosques is due to economical construction ethics, or to fulfil architects" aspiration to create a stand-alone feature. Thus, using available material with no intervention to make systems durable and long-lasting.
Exceptionally, in Abdur-Rauf mosque-brick is used in pure form because the architect wanted the mosque to stand out among other mosques which were present in the vicinity. He may or may not have used the Minimalist technique.
Light: There was a primary application of natural light with variation in different spaces by designing bold and simple windows. Indirect lighting systems like light wells, screens and for direct lights, using large opening on ceilings or on walls were mostly used. This reduced openings on façade with less ornamentation thus making it bare and simple-Ideology of Minimalism. For example, in Baitur-Rauf Jame mosque architect has created prayer hall as a silent and dimly illuminated space inspired by the Bengali architecture of mosque in which less light is allowed to penetrate inside by use of fewer openings in façade.
Use of natural light for maximum light intake either by indirect or direct source of sunlight is seen in both mosques of India. This resulted in a maximum number of openings, very often repetitive -Traditional method façade treatment for intake of light. In Abdur Rauf mosque, indirect light infiltrated through angled corners, slits in dome, and jaali screens but a repetition of conventional elements was seen in Abu-Bakr mosque with monotonous use of arches throughout the façade.
Orientation: It is a primary factor that is taken care of in all four mosques that have been studied. In Baitur Rauf Jame Mosque and Chandgaon Mosque, Qibla wall is oriented towards west perpendicularly. Where the western edge of site did not coincide with Qibla wall, as in Baitur Rauf Mosque in Bangladesh, the square was rotated with help of cylinder to create a Qibla wall perpendicular to west. Similarly, in Malegaon Mosque, where the prayer hall was rotated so that Qibla wall was perpendicular to west. Hence orientation of Qibla wall towards west is preferred.
Transformation: In Bangladesh mosques, pure forms have been used with openings in such a way that their identity is not lost. For example, use of cuboid in Baitur-Rauf Jame mosque and Chandgaon Mosque. Thus, the composition was subtle and easily perceivable. Here-Transformation retains identity of form. While in India, additive transformation of cube or cuboid often times change the overall perception of form and it rather becomes complex. For example, transformation in Haji Abdur Rauf mosque is additive but abstract was complex and not 581 clear to perceive. Similarly, in Abu-Bakr Mosque where simpler transformation was seen, even though it is additive.
Here-Transformation does not retains identity of form.
Size: It is another significant factor that govern the form of mosques and also the image that is perceived by the people. For instance, in Baitur-Rauf Jame Mosque and in Chandgaon Mosque, area, type of funding and context primarily governed their sizes-Context played an important role. Unlike in Bangladesh, importance was given to number of occupants besides funding and area while the context was neglected-Context was considered but number of occupants governed majorly. Courtyard: Architects and local people in Bangladesh have taken climate as a primary design consideration thus included courtyards and windows with double walls for protection from harsh climate specifically in case of Baitur Rauf Mosque -Response to climate. In contrast,architects do not seem to consciously incorporate climateresponsive features like courtyards even though they are present in the design as in Haji Abdur Rauf Mosque in Malegaon as well as in Abu-Bakr Mosque in Allahabad-Lack of conscious response to climate.

Scale
Pond/ Ablution area: Inclusion of an ablution area is mandatory with proper seating and water facility. Both in Baitur Rauf Jame Mosque and Chandgaon Mosque, a proper area was defined with seating and water facility. Although in the former it was located within the building while in the latter it was outside, accessibility should be easy. In Haji Abdur Rauf Mosque, ablution area was combined with pond with an easily accessible location while it was not maintained in Abu-Bakr Mosque-Negligence towards functional requirements.
Prayer hall: Concept of prayer hall in Baitur-Rauf Mosque as well as in Chandgaon Mosque has been derived from pavilions built in the 13 th century that existed there-Inspiration from History. In contrast, concept of prayer hall in Haji Abdur Rauf Mosque and Abu-Bakr Mosque has been derived from the primitive hypostyle halls that existed in India-Inspiration from History with no modern intervention. For example, in Abu-Bakr mosque, the prayer space with a hypostyle hall is recreated more simply.

Mihrab:
Although it does not chiefly influence form of mosques, but to define a prayer hall, it is an important factor. In Baitur-Rauf Mosque, a vertical slit was used to indicate Qibla wall while in Chandgaon mosque, difference in texture and colour of material defined the mihrab. Similarly, in Haji Abdur-Rauf Mosque, mihrab is 582 defined by a semi-circular niche with a textured surface, while in Abu-Bakr Mosque, it is defined by three columns forming an arcade. Hence-design of mihrab is open-ended.
Dome & Minaret: Domes, minarets and arches are not necessarily used without any function-Religious Symbolism is discarded. For example, in Chandgaon mosque, architect Kashef Chowdhury has used dome in such a way that it acts as a pocket to capture light and send it inside. Large oculus in courtyards cause the space to glitter during the day. While domes, minarets and arches in Abu-Bakr Mosque are necessarily used without any proper function. Dome used in Abdur Rauf mosque is intervened by slits to bring in light. Minaret is also used with openings in triangular and rectangular shapes with a curved top inspired by African vernacular Architecture-Religious Symbolism is used blindly with different features to fulfill their design ideas.
Formal collisions of geometry: In Baitur rauf Jame Mosque, the architect has used circle and square to create a pavilion, while in Chandgaon mosque, squares offset at a distance were used to create pathways and prayer hall area.
There is a variety of how simplest geometries could be articulated to generate creative forms-Cohesive and diverse use of geometries. While in Haji Abdur Rauf Mosque and Abu-Bakr Mosque, no such articulation was found. Instead a square is simply transformed in to a framed cuboid-Non-cohesive and similar use of geometries.
Axis, Symmetry, and Hierarchy:In Baitur Rauf and Chandgaon Mosque, architects have strategically used these design principles to create an aesthetically pleasing and visually balanced forms.
They were helpful in organising spaces, enhancing visual weight and making distinguishable volumes that are easily perceived. In contrast to this, Malegaon mosque and Abu-Bakr mosque did not have visual weight or aesthetically pleasing compositions in terms of axis, symmetry and hierarchy, although in Malegaon mosque, the architect has used brick to create hierarchy. Similarly, in Abu-Bakr mosque, visual balance did not appear to play a crucial role.
Emphasis, Balance, and Harmony: These three design principles are clearly visible in form of material, colour, shape and organisation of spaces in Baitur-Rauf Mosque as well as in Chandgaon Mosque. Architects have used these principles to create visually balanced forms. In contrast to this, mosque in Malegaon and Allahabad have unconsciously used these to create the forms.

Participation of people:
Baitur Rauf Mosque as well as Chandgaon Mosque in Bangladesh were locally commissioned which enabled people to interact with architects. The fund often times had local people as contributors, thus reducing overall scale and cost of construction as funds were limited-People's Participation can be seen. In India, both the projects were locally commissioned but people demand and aspirations were not catered by architects. There was no participation of local people. Only wealthy clients can afford money for construction and people are not involved rather they do not take interest.
Role of Religious extremism: Baitur Rauf Mosque and Chandgaon Mosque have been treated as secular and modernist spaces in Bangladesh, hence they have received wide appraisal for the quality of spaces within. Religious extremism is discarded. Whilemosque in Malegaon as well as in Allahabad is as religious today as it was before with no reforms in the quality of its spaces-Religious extremism is not discarded while people's acceptance for new cannot be seen.
In addition to this, minbar, Maqsura, kursi, and dikka do not play a significant role in the form of mosques. However, minbar is a mandatory requirement used as a furniture made out of various materials, and designs.
583 Figure 58Figure showing points of difference in forms of Mosques in India and Bangladesh; Source: Author From analysis and results, following points can be concluded for the form of local mosques in India: 1. Shape: Mostly rectangles are taken into consideration. This is due to ease in planning and construction. However, this does not adhere some modernist approaches in which squares are being used to create spatially cohesive interior spaces.
2. Colour: Use of shades, tints, and tones of green is most common and is done to symbolize mosque in Medina. Besides this, white colour is often used to simplify visual perception of the form. However, this does not enhance the aesthetics rather make it more conventional and mundane.
3. Texture: Heavy to low ornamentation is seen in terms of floral patterns on walls and interiors which is outdated. This is due to replication of older mosques and mosques which are around. However, it adds to the construction cost and also the originality of form vanishes. 4. Light: This factor is extremely important and is required to be assessed as daylighting is not adequate in these places. Fenestrations have been provided but poorly designed and only for decoration. Most mosques rely on artificial lighting.

Orientation:
Since it is a functional requirement, hence it is not modified in any way. Qibla wall faces west. 584 6. Transformation: The transformation is a typical use of cuboid or cube, topped with a hemispherical dome and slender minaret. It is a typical transformation with no visual weight and balance. This might happen because of insufficient knowledge on architect"s part.
7. Size: In India it majorly, depends upon type of funding, area of the plot and number of occupants. However, context is not considered.
8. Scale: Mostly all forms of local mosques are of intermediate scale. However, it is not an issue. The problem arises when context is not taken into consideration, which changes the overall perception of form.
9. Proportion: Proportion as a design principle is not followed. For example, on analysis of two mosques, the ratio of each space was not equal. This is due to insufficient knowledge of architect. Thus, it results in visual imbalance of the form in elevation, section and plan.
10. Articulation: Typical edge articulation is prevalent while surface articulation is dominated by archetypal repetition of windows with less or no influence from Postmodern architecture.

Portal & Arches:
Pointed arch is an element that is present in almost all the local mosques. It is in form of windows, gateways or simply façade treatment. Due to lack of tolerance for new and association with old with no modern intervention, the overall form becomes monotonous and mundane, besides increasing cost of construction also.
12. Pond/ Ablution area: No pond is provided but sometimes an ablution area is provided which is in a dilapidated condition located in corners. Even though a pond is provided, it is not enough to have a dual effect or function.
13. Courtyard: Either courtyard is omitted or used present with ratios of 1:0.6 or 1.6:1 (x/y). These ratios indicate that insufficient proportions of courtyards are being designed for any type pf climate in India and are being omitted due to lack of space available. Hence, absence or shrinkage of courtyards in mosques leads to uncomfortable environment for the users.
14. Prayer hall: Architects take inspiration from history by using columns as used in hypostyle hall, however, there is lack of visual connectivity between levels. There is no progress in structural advancement or uniqueness. They are not well lit and properly ventilated.
15. Dome (triple/ single): Mostly single onion shaped and bulbous concrete domes are used with no proper function. Height varies from 5-7m with diameter ranging from 8-10m. The widespread use of domes is due to adherence to religious symbolism and lack of tolerance among people to accept something new without a dome.
16. Mihrab: It is mostly defined by using different textures, colours, patterns or elements to a conventional niche, which is inspired by conventional mihrab designs, at the centre of Qibla wall.
17. Minaret: They are used only for accentuating the skyline with no function except for installing the loudspeakers. Height varies from 8-12m. The widespread use of minarets is due to adherence to religious symbolism and lack of tolerance among people to accept something new besides a minaret.
18. Formal collisions of geometry: Either a square or rectangle dominates the plan due to association with typical shapes because of ease in planning and construction. However, this leads to a mundane form that lack any diverse spatial organisation and modern approach.
19. Axis, Symmetry, and Hierarchy: These three ordering principles are crucial for a form to have visual weight. However, none of these seems to have an effect on form of local mosques, both internally and externally. Thus, there is no visual weight in the form of mosque. This might be due to lack of design consciousness from the architect"s part of design consideration. 585 20. Emphasis: Emphasis on bulbous, concrete domes, used only for sake of symbolism, with no function and high minarets upto 12m with no importance except for accentuating the skylines, emphasizes the forms of local mosques and creates an obvious image for an individual.

Balance and Harmony:
There is lack of visual balance and visual weight due to absence of balance and harmony created by colour, texture and size. Eventually, the form does not correspond to the context.

Participation of people:
There is no role of people due to lack of interaction among architects, clients and local people. This creates a chain of duplicate forms with lack of uniqueness in the design.
23. Role of Religious extremism: It is widely prevalent in local mosques. Hence, people are accustomed to perceiving mosques with domes and minarets. Therefore, architects are unable to design forms without involving religious symbolism, thus, preventing them to attempt radically creative forms and spaces.

Design Recommendations:-
As far as design is considered, no one can comment on what the outcome would be as it depends on site, region, climate, soil conditions, design brief. Since the output in these cases cannot be derived but the approach that should be taken to achieve an architecturally creative and innovative design, can be stated. From the derived results, it is important that issues that are present in mosques which are built as a locally commissioned project, are acknowledged. below are qualitative recommendations based on the parameters analyzed: 1. Whenever such projects are undertaken, the client, architect, and local people must be involved and made to interact amongst themselves. Hence, this becomes a duty of the architect to understand the user group and the brief. It must be a democratic approach to the design of such mosques. 2. Architects get an advantage to examine antiquity of a place and also the history of architectural styles of mosques that resulted in different forms that ever existed in those regions. They get to know the vernacular language of forms of not only mosques but also other structures and learn about the local construction technique involved which would, if incorporated in their design innovatively, help local people to know about the past. People will be able to connect between ancient and contemporary. How a form is perceived depends on how architects interpret the vocabulary of forms of a mosque as a sacred space. 3. Local people and clients must be aware of what exactly they expect the mosque to look like. As it contributes to an image of that place, hence visual weight that a form should have to be perceived as an identity lies in the hands of both architect and local people, who must constantly guide the architect to achieve a desired form. 4. Locally available materials must be used to decrease construction costs. Their implementation must be in such a way as seen in examples of mosques in Bangladesh. This will not only help the form to be in a hierarchy with other structures in the vicinity but also make a sustainable mosque. Construction techniques might be modern along with structural systems while forms will be modern in their overall appearance as well. This leads to the idea of minimalism where architects have used materials in their pure characteristics to achieve visually appealing and modern buildings. 5. When minimalism is applied to spatial volumes then building forms completely change. Forms are reduced to either hybrid of old and new, or simpler forms that are easily perceived without any complexity. Simpler is the design, more easily it is perceived. Objects must be treated to create balance and harmony. Balance can be created by shapes that are bold and pure and also by using colours which balance rather than alienate mosques from its context.
Further, below are quantitative recommendations based on the parameters analyzed: Shape: a) A square or rectangular shape is satisfactory. However square can be used adequately as it reduces wastage of spaces and accommodates the required areas easily as compared to circle, triangle or pentagon etc. b) This also depends on size of the plot but efforts must be made to use simple and bold geometry. Colour & texture: a) According to results, bright colours should be avoided keeping the sanctity of space in mind as well as surrounding structures. Colour and texture are characteristics of the type of finish and material. b) It is advisable that locally available materials must be used and in their pure form that helps in reducing cost and also helps in response to climate. c) Ornamentation should not be used. d) Red bricks, bricks made out of fly-ash can also be used as a substitute to normal bricks for construction.
Perhaps concrete can prove beneficial if used in an alternative manner, for instance, in combination with other constituents like sawdust resulting in materials such as timber crete which requires cheap labor as well.
Light: a) Importance must be given to the use of natural sources of light rather than artificial light. This helps in cost reduction and achieve effective user experience. b) When minimalism is taken into consideration to design the form of mosques, fewer perforations will be used in the exterior. Hence daylight from a skylight, lightwells, jaali screens must be implemented. c) Considering the scale of the mosque, openings in the exterior must be decided accordingly. For a prayer room of 4-4.5m in height, lintel must be at 2.5m to 3m for the venturi effect to take place. d) Skylights, jaali screens, courtyards, and lightwells must be used to penetrate daylight in the interior. e) According to (holmes, 2014)minimum lux should be 150lux so that people can see each other properly with less use of artificial luminaries. The transformation of geometries should not be such to make compositions look complex. Mostly subtractive and additive transformation will help form of mosques to retain their identity as dimensional transformation might lose identity, thus making an alienated form, unless consciously, sensibly, and radically implemented. a) Additive transformation and subtractive transformation must be implemented to such an extent that the identity of form used should not be lost. b) Since minimalism teaches the use of pure forms without losing identity, hence additive and subtractive transformation will help in achieving that.

Figure 62Design recommendation for transformation of mosques; Source: Author
Size: a) For a maximum of 1000 worshippers, total built-up area of 800-1000sq.mt can be designed. b) The maximum area will be occupied by prayer hall which shall be a square measuring 20m*20m. c) To accommodate this area, levels can be generated which can demarcate spaces, but the total height should be greater or equal to 8m. Scale: a) The scale of mosques should not intimidate the human scale; hence it should be a maximum of 5-7 times the human scale.
588 Figure 63Design recommendation for size and scale of mosques; Source: Author Proportion:Proportion as a design principle has a great deal in architecture. Many theories have been formulated to achieve proportion but the overall idea is to achieve visual balance and unity in forms. Especially in the case of mosques where traditional elements like traditional domes and conventional minarets have sometimes overruled this idea due to bad designs. But a mosque with such elements, designed proportionately with as many volumes as it can have (without diluting sanctity of mosque), an upright form can be achieved. a) From the analysis, it can be seen that proportion in local mosques in India unlike those in Bangladesh and historical Indian mosques. b) Recommended ratios are 1:1, 1:2 such that the ratio of all dimensions is equal. c) The objective is to have proportionate spaces, thus helping in achieving a proportionate composition.

Figure 64Design recommendation for proportion of mosques; Source: Author
Articulation: a) Surface articulation depends upon openings on the exterior and material/finish used. b) With very less or no ornamentation, less opening on the façade, the overall form appears rigid. Similarly, texture will depend on materials used and their type of finish. c) Edges and corners must be judiciously designed when indirect sources of daylight are concerned.
Portal & arches: a) Portal form the entrance to mosques. b) Unlike historical mosque, it need not be highly decorated or huge. c) It should be enough to fulfil the need of allowing 3-4 people to comfortably pass through it. d) It is advisable to decrease or discard the use of religious symbols such as arches in portals or windows. e) For a prayer room of 4-4.5m in height, lintel must be at 2.5m to 3m for the venturi effect to take place.

589
Courtyard: Climate is also one of the primary design considerations. In India, when we look back in history, many mosques had undergone tremendous changes in courtyards and their treatment of façade. This was majorly due to climatic conditions. In many mosques, for example those in Bengal, courtyards were introduced for vent ilation and air penetration. Instead, mosques built in Gujarat, did not include a courtyard because of the hot and arid climate throughout the year. Climate determines whether there will be opening or light wells or wind towers or indirect light sources which ultimately affects forms of mosques. a) It is advisable to have a courtyard in a mosque as it not only serves as a transition from profane to sacred but also as a gathering space and acts as an extension when the number of worshippers increases. b) Besides that, it benefits in generating a comfortable environment by allowing sunlight, and air to enter. c) It helps in cross-ventilation. Courtyard ratio should be either 1:1, 1:1.5, or 1:2.

Figure 65Design recommendation for courtyards in mosques; Source: Author
Pond/ ablution area: a) Ablution area need not be highly dominant and should have proper seating platform with water facility for people to perform ablution. b) It must be located before going inside a prayer hall. For regions where water ponds help in evaporative cooling to create comfortable environment, it is advisable to use them.

Figure 66Design recommendation for possible location of ablution area in mosques; Source: Author
Prayer hall: When designing mosques in India, architects need to know that it is a secular country unlike Bangladesh which is an Islamic country. Despite this fact, Bangladeshi architects have created some of the most creatively and radically secular mosques. The credit goes to Louis I. Kahn, who by his design of prayer hall in Dhaka Assembly Hall, has created one of the finest of prayer halls in the world. Such an approach must be involved in India also where Muslim identity is important rather than religious symbolism. a) As mentioned earlier, it should be either a cuboid or cube which may be supported on columns, or arch or loadbearing structural system depending upon construction technique followed. 590 b) For 1000 worshippers it is advisable to have a prayer hall measuring 20m*20m with a height of 8m for ventilation and providing comfortable interior space. This may be divided into ground floor and first floor or a single floor with a mezzanine for women. c) A column-free space is preferred for free circulation, visual clarity, and fewer obstructions in movement. d) Play of light and shadow should be incorporated for enhanced experience of users.

Figure 67Design recommendation for prayer hall; Source: Author
Mihrab: a) Mihrab is an important element of a mosque even though it does not primarily affect the form of a mosque. b) Mihrab should be as simple as possible and can be defined with the help of texture, light, colour, material, or geometry.

Figure 68Design recommendation for Mihrab; Source: Author
Dome:Domes and minarets were invented earlier with unique construction techniques, hence lasted for a longer time period. Similarly, even if they are used today while defining forms of mosques, they should not overpower the form rather complement it. Here emphasis, as a design principle, comes into the picture, which element requires maximum visual weight to develop mosque identity for that region. Emphasis can be created by using bold geometries, using bright colour, change in its development style, for example traditional to minimalism, use of shadow, and natural light by creating perforations or opening in ceiling or walls. a) The use of religious symbolism like domes shall be reduced. b) This is because it increases the cost of construction and is not well designed as seen in today"s scenario in form of small domes put over minarets in an eclectic manner. c) Using it as a religious symbol will only signify its existence unless used as a skylight, or for ventilation to serve any purpose. d) Even if they are used as an element, they should not dominate the whole composition, thereby keeping in essence with the contemporary architecture of mosque and its function.

Minaret:
a) It is a religious symbol that has dominated forms of mosques for thousands of years. b) But now, its function has reduced to merely a symbol. c) Hence, it should not be used unless it has a function other than calling out for prayer. d) Height of the overall form must not be intimidating for other structures in vicinity.
Overall idea is to create such a form which do not emphasizes on traditional elements, and the idea of religious symbolism and extremism but on how it can contribute to the image of any city. In India, where secularism is deeply rooted, this architecture is not evident to have a clear identity although it is can be found throughout the entire country. Forms, thus, derived would be modernist and will not be called as Pan-Islamic shorthand or stereotyped for using familiar forms or replicating forms that are present. This will completely change the perception of sacred space for not only Muslims but people from other religions as well.

Conclusions:-
This dissertation aimed at finding the parameters that will govern the form of local mosques built by local communities in contemporary India and recommending what should be the form for such mosques. This is done by analyzing selected examples from India as well as Bangladesh based on parameters deduced from the literature study. The examples were selected, based on the type of funding, year of construction, number of worshippers, and built-up area. Mosques built after the 1970s were considered. The results show that there is a lack of modern approach and use of Postmodern style of architecture due to less/no contribution of local people and lack of interaction among architects as well as clients with regards to design and construction of mosques in India unlike in Bangladesh. Hence, recommendations include a low scale of mosques with less/no use of religious symbolism with elements inspired from history and intervened with a minimal and modern approach in coherence with site and climate, thus, condemning any kind of replication. Besides, the participation of local people is also a major aspect that has been recommended together with interaction of local people with architects as well as clients through questionnaires, interviews. This dissertation further contributes to giving an insight into what is the major concern concerning the development of local mosques in today"s India as well as suggesting how the form of the local mosque in India should be, keeping the secularism of country in consideration.