A Checklist of the Herpetofauna of Nusa Kambangan Island, Central Java, Indonesia

An inventory of herpetofauna species from western part of Nusa Kambangan Island, Central Java, Indonesia, is presented. There are 43 herpetofauna species reported (16 amphibians and 27 reptiles). This study confirmed new distribution record and list some of threatened species. In light of the imminent human disturbances on Nusa Kambangan Island, a conservation plan is urgently needed.

Herpetofauna baseline data can be used as a preliminary step for investigating environmental changes and habitat degradation. In this study, we report on the diversity of herpetofauna found on the west part of Nusa Kambangan Island. These data will provide essential information about herpetofauna species and will aid in the future management of the conservation of Nusa Kambangan Island.

Study Area
Nusa Kambangan Island encompasses an area of 210 km 2 (KKP-Direktori Pulau-Pulau Kecil Indonesia 2021) and is considered an ecologically significant area due to its diverse ecological landscape. This island was located in the southern region of Central Java, whereas the island's natural reserve areas are located in the island's eastern and western regions (Fig. 1). It is characterised by lowland habitats such as coastal and mangrove forests ( Fig. 2A) and forest with karst caves and flowing freshwater (Fig. 2C), as well as an elevation range of up to 150 meters above sea level (m asl). The island faces human disturbance and environmental degradation as a result of logging (Fig. 2D), land conversion, mining, and wildlife trade (Whitten et al. 1999;Dharmawan et al. 2017;Ayuningrum & Purnaweni 2018).

Field Sampling
We conducted a standard Visual Encounter Survey using purposive sampling methods (Kusrini 2008;Dorcas & Wilson 2009), by night (1700 pm-2400 am), from 7-8 December 2018, 3-4 March 2019, and 27-29 June 2020. Three workers surveyed each stream in order to increase our effectiveness in finding herpetofauna species (Kusrini 2008). Each surveyor was equipped with a headlamp and other required safety equipment. We collected data on the individual, elevation, location, habitat, natural history, as well as documentation of the species (in-situ).

Specimens Identification and Collection
We identified the herpetofauna species by examining external morphological characteristics and consulting previously published literature (Boulenger 1890;de Rooij 1917;van Kampen 1923;de Haas 1941;Inger 1966;Iskandar 1998;Iskandar & Colijn 2000;Das 2010;de Lang 2017;Frost 2020;Uetz et al. 2016). The collected voucher specimens were euthanised with 7.5% benzocaine, fixed in 10% formalin for 24 h, preserved in 70% ethanol, and accessioned at the Laboratory of Animal Diversity and Ecology Collection, Biology Department, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia (NK). For further molecular analysis, a tissue sample was collected in 95% ethanol.

Data Analysis
We classified herpetofauna species by family and assessed their conservation status using the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry's list of national protected fauna and flora (PERMEN LHK; Ministry of Environment and Forestry 2018). Additionally, we consulted the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2020) to determine the species' conservation status. Furthermore, we consulted the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES 2021) for the regulation of international trade of species under threat. Following their respective categorisation, the data were analysed for community structure using the diversity index (H'; Shannon-Wiener) (Hill 1973), abundance, taxa richness, and dominance index (D; Simpson index) (Hill et al. 2005). We used Zar's modified t-tests, also known as Hutcheson t-tests, to determine the significance difference of species diversity between sites (Hutcheson 1970;Das et al. 2007). MS-Excel for macOS was used to perform all analyses.
We plot the species richness across vegetational types and/or habitat complexes that were encountered during the study by referring to the ecology of the islands (Whitten et al. 1999). Vegetational types and/or habitat complexes were delimited based on floristic and structural differences along the elevational gradient. Vegetational types and/or habitat complexes were summarised into following categories: A. Mangrove forest type 1, is a forest composed primarily of mangroves (e.g., Avicennia sp., Rhizophora sp., Sonneratia sp.) that inhabits mudflats (coastal wetlands that form in intertidal areas where tides or rivers deposit sediments). The disturbance caused by humans to this habitat complex is relatively low.
B. Mangrove forest type 2, is a forest composed of mangroves (e.g., Xilocarpus sp.) which has been associated with other lowland forest vegetations, characterised by water canals and small streams. The disturbance caused by humans is more pronounced in this habitat complex than in mangrove forest type 1 (e.g., docking boat, waste load).
C. Fishpond and settlement area, is a rural area characterised by the presence of small communities. The areas were adjacent to water canals and composed of shrubs, palm and coconut trees, fishponds, and human settlements. The disturbance caused by humans to this habitat complex is profound.
D. Paddy field and timber production forest, is an area characterised by the presence of paddy fields and sparsely timber production forest that have not been logged by the communities. The area is not overly steep, and the disturbance caused by humans is significant.

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E. Edges between agriculture and forest, is the border between two distinct habitats, the agricultural area and the forest. The hills were excessively steep, the timber production forest was still present, and human disturbance is less significant than in paddy fields and timber production forests, as the area is distant from human settlement areas.
F. Tributary stream and degraded areas, is an area primarily made up of small water streams that disembogued into canals; some areas are open due to harvested timber forest, and the water streams are mostly murky due to erosion and soil degradation. This habitat was typically found between the edges of agriculture and forest and lowland forest type 1; areas with a high level of human disturbance.
G. Lowland forest type 1, is a natural habitat that is flowed by clear freshwater from karst caves, dense canopies, and is covered in a various vegetation.
Typically, this area is accessible to locals in search of forest resources.
H. Lowland forest type 2, is a pristine habitat fed by freshwater, with rocky terrain, dense canopies, and a wide and varied vegetation cover. The canopy was so dense that sunlight could not reach the forest floor thoroughly. This area was so secluded that the locals considered it inaccessible.

Species Diversity and Conservation Status
Currently, a total of 43 herpetofauna consisting of 16 amphibians and 27 reptiles  are recorded from the western part of Nusa Kambangan Island. Three threatened species were discovered, according to the IUCN conservation status (2020), including Rhacophorus reinwardtii (Near Threatened; NT), Cyclemys dentata (NT), and Amyda cartilaginea (Vulnerable). Six highly traded species categorised in Appendix II were identified using CITES (2021), including the Gekko gecko, Malayopython reticulatus, C. dentata, A. cartilaginea, Varanus salvator, and Crocodylus porosus. According to the PERMEN LHK list, our surveys identified one protected species, C. porosus. Table 1 contains an annotated checklist of herpetofauna species, as well as a species inventory as follows.

Family Bufonidae
Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider 1799 Distribution and habitat: This species is found throughout Indonesia, including Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara. It may have been introduced to Sulawesi as well. It is found in primary and secondary forest at elevations of up to 700 m asl. The habitat is closely linked to human activity. However, in Java, it seems that this species is restricted to forested areas (Reilly et al. 2020;Frost 2020). Local remarks: This toad was observed across the floor of the secondary forest, which is densely covered in leaf litter and is located near the Mss.

Leptophryne borbonica (Tschudi 1838) (Fig. 3C)
Common name: Bourbon Toad, Java Tree Toad, Slender-legged Toad and Hour-glass Toad Type locality: Indonesia (West Java) Distribution and habitat: It is known to occur on the Indonesian islands of Java, Kalimantan and Sumatra. There have also been reports of occurrences in Sarawak, Sabah, Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand. It is mainly found in the leaf litter of moist forests less than 400 m asl. It is occasionally seen in marshy or wet areas with clear, slow-moving waters (Erfanda et al. 2019;Poyarkov et al. 2021;Frost 2020). Local remarks: Several individuals were observed only at the Kls, along a shallow stream and along the forest cliffs of a primary forest.

Family Dicroglossidae
Fejervarya cancrivora (Gravenhorst 1829 Distribution and habitat: This species is known to occur in Java and Sumatra of Indonesia. It is common along rivers and clear streams (Iskandar 1998;Frost 2020). Local remarks: They were observed at the rocky stream, concealing themselves beneath the leaf litter that covers the stream's side in Kts and Ms.
Limnonectes microdiscus (Boettger 1892) (Fig. 3H) Common name: Indonesia Wart Frog and Pygmy Creek Frog Type locality: Indonesia (Tengger, East Java) Distribution and habitat: This species is endemic to the Indonesian island of Java. It is found only in forested areas between 0-1400 m asl (Iskandar 1998;Frost 2020 Distribution and habitat: This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java, Madura, Bali and Kangean. It is primarily found in forested areas and is easily found at elevations greater than sea level (Iskandar 1998;Frost 2020). Local remarks: It was primarily discovered on a damp rock, but was also found scattered throughout the walkway and shallow stream in Ms and Ls.

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Distribution and habitat: This species is found only in West Java and western Sumatra, Indonesia. They are found in forest habitats at lower elevations (Iskandar 1998;Frost 2020). Local remarks: This species was discovered in the primary forest near Kls and Ls at sea-level altitudes, above fallen dried palm trees. This observation corroborated the previous record of distribution (IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group 2018).
Microhyla achatina (Tschudi 1838) (Fig. 4D) Common name: Javanese Narrow-mouthed Frog, Javan Chorus Frog and Java Rice Frog Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: It is only found in Java of Indonesia. This species is restricted to primary and secondary forests, though it is occasionally encountered near human settlements up to an elevation of 1,600 m asl (Frost 2020). Local remarks: In Mss and Ls, this species was common in leaf litter near water sources.
Local remarks: Adults have been observed in muddy water puddles, sandy water puddles and on the surface. This species was discovered in the Ls.

Family Geoemydidae
Cyclemys dentata (Gray 1831a) (Fig. 5B) Common name: Asian Leaf Turtle Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: Freshwater turtles are found throughout Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Bali), the southern Malay Peninsula, and Phillipines (including Palawan and Calamian islands). They prefer low plains and are frequently encountered in small rivers, shallow streams, and puddles (Fritz et al. 2008;Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: The freshwater turtle was discovered in a muddy puddle with a depth of approximately 50 cm-70 cm and water that was slowly moving and covered in damp leaves. Because the canopy was too dense, the populations remained unscathed by human disturbances. This species was discovered in the Kts, Ds, Ms, and Ls.

Draco volans (Linnaeus 1758) (Fig. 5E) Common name: Common Flying Dragon
Type locality: N/A Distribution and habitat: This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali. This agamid is found in submontane and lowland forest, as well as urban areas with an elevation of up to 1,500 m asl (Quah et al. 2018;Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: On the tree, the flying lizard was observed. This species has been discovered in Mss.

Family Gekkonidae
Cyrtodactylus marmoratus (Gray 1831b) (Fig. 5F) Common name: Marbled Bow-fingered Gecko Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This species is found only on the Indonesian island of Java. They are found in lowland forest habitats Uetz et al. 2016).

Local remarks: The gecko was found on a mossy cliff in Kts, Kls and Ms.
Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann 1834) (Fig. 5G). Hemidactylus frenatus (Duméril & Bibron 1836) (Fig. 6A) Common name: Common House Gecko, Asian House Gecko, South Asian House Gecko, Spiny-tailed House Gecko, and Bridled House Gecko Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: The species is found throughout the tropics and subtropics. Its origins can be traced all the way back to Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian archipelago. They are found in urban and forested areas and can be found up to 1,600 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: In Mss and Mv, the house gecko was common near human settlements.

Family Lacertidae
Takydromus sexlineatus (Daudin 1802)  Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Timor-Leste and New Guinea. This species is found in a wide variety of habitats, including peat swamp forest, montane forest, disturbed riparian habitats, moist lowland, tropical dry, agricultural land, savannah, eucalyptus forest, coffee plantations, woodland and gardens up to an elevation of 1,800 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: In Kts, Ds, and Ms, the skink was observed sleeping beneath leaf litter and tree trunks at night. It was also observed during the day.

Local remarks:
The skink was discovered in daylight above the fallen trees in Ms, and was also discovered hiding beneath leaf litter near the Ds.

Family Varanidae
Varanus salvator (Laurenti 1768) (Fig. 6F) Common name: Common Water Monitor Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This monitor lizard is found in Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, China, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia (i.e., Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara and Sulawesi), where it is mostly found in swamps and riverbanks (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: In the morning, a juvenile lizard was observed beneath a palm tree in Mv. In Kts, a sub-adult lizard was observed sleeping on tree branches. An adult was spotted swimming near a mangrove not far from Mss.

Family Colubridae
Ahaetulla prasina (Boie 1827) (Fig. 6G) Common name: Asian Vine Snake, Oriental Whip Snake, Jade Vine Snake and Gunther's Whip Snake Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This species is found throughout Southeast Asia, including China, Philippines, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. This snake is found in primary moist lowland and montane forests, secondary forests, open and dry forests, disturbed forests, scrublands, and plantations, as well as city gardens and urban areas (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: The snake was discovered on the tips of the branches, as well as in the shrubs surrounding the walkway to Ms.
Boiga dendrophila (Boie 1827) (Fig. 6H) Common name: Yellow-ringed Cat Snake, Gold-ringed Cat Snake and Mangrove Snake Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This species was widely distributed across Southeast Asia. It is found in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Sulawesi of Indonesia. Their habitat is primarily lowland forests, specifically mangrove swamps and peat swamp forests, which reach elevations of up to 700 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: In Mss, an adult was observed slithering along drainage canals, heading towards a tree.
Boiga nigriceps (Günther 1863) (Fig. 7A) Common name: Black-headed Cat Snake Type locality: N/A Distribution and habitat: It is found in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Java of Indonesia. Additionally, it also occurs in China, Malaysia, and Thailand. Their natural habitats are primarily lowland forest (e.g., peat swamps) (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: This species was discovered in shrubs adjacent to dried streams in the Kts production forest.
Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin 1789) (Fig. 7B) Common name: Common Bronze-back Snake, Painted Bronze-back Snake and Indonesian Bronze-back Snake Type locality: "Indiae orientalis" = Southeast Asia Distribution and habitat: It is found throughout Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan. This species inhabits a diverse range of habitats, including freshwater habitats such as slow-moving waters, rice fields, marshes, canals, and brackish water (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: The snake was found on a tree branch in Kts and Ms.

Dendrelaphis underwoodi (van Rooijen & Vogel 2008) (Fig. 7C)
Common name: Underwood's Bronzeback Tree Snake Type locality: Indonesia (West Java) Distribution and habitat: This species is found only in West Java (i.e., Simpai mountain, Rajamandala, and Gulayang Province). This species is found in lowland to mid-hill forests at elevations ranging from 35 m asl-990 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: The snake was discovered near the tip of shrubs that act as canopies for the vegetation below, approximately 2 meters above the ground in Ms. This record extends the range of this species known to exist to Central Java.
Lycodon subcinctus (Boie 1827) (Fig. 7D) Common name: Malayan Banded Wolf Snake Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This species is found throughout Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Thailand, Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia and China. This species is typically found in lowland forests and at elevations of up to 1,000 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: The snake was spotted slithering through the rocky stream near the Ms's karst caves.
Ptyas korros (Schlegel 1837b) (Fig. 7E) Common name: Chinese Ratsnake and Indo-Chinese Rat Snake Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This species occurs throughout Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Bangladesh, India and Bhutan. The snake can be found in lowland to montane forests at elevations up to 3,000 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: This species was discovered on the outskirts of estuaries, on the tips of mangroves. It was observed on the Mss's northern flank.

Family Elapidae
Bungarus candidus (Linnaeus 1758) (Fig. 7F) Common name: Malayan Krait and Blue Krait Type locality: N/A Distribution and habitat: This venomous species is found in Southeast Asia, specifically in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao PDR. It is found in lowland to submontane forests. It is also found in urban and agricultural areas up to 1,525 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: A juvenile individual was discovered near the stream near the Mv to Mss walkway. In Kls, Kts, and Ms, an adult was also observed slithering around the stream's edge.

Family Homalopsidae
Enhydris enhydris (Schneider 1799) (Fig. 7G) Common name: Rainbow Water Snake, Rainbow Mud Snake, Smooth Water Snake and Striped Water-Snake Type locality: "Indiae orientalis" = Southeast Asia Distribution and habitat: It is widely distributed in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. It is found predominantly in freshwater habitats, such as slow-moving streams, rice fields, canals and brackish water (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: This water snake was encountered in a muddy field in Mss that had previously been used as a fishpond.

Family Pareidae
Pareas carinatus (Wagler 1830) (Fig. 7H) Common name: Keeled Slug-Eating Snake Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: This species is found throughout Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Malaysia and Indonesia (i.e., Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Bali and Nusa Tenggara). This species is found in lowland to submontane forests at elevations ranging from 550 m asl-1,300 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: This small snake was spotted in the shrubs near the stream. Their presence was established by the abundance of their prey (i.e., slugs) in the Ms.

Family Pythonidae
Malayopython reticulatus (Schneider 1801) (Fig. 8A) Common name: Reticulated Python Type locality: Malaysia (Rengit) Distribution and habitat: This large constrictor snake is found throughout Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Lao PDR, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia and Bangladesh. It is found in a variety of habitats, including primary and secondary forests, savannah, shrublands, wetlands, peat swamps, mangrove swamps, grasslands, agricultural areas and urban areas. This species is found at elevations ranging from 0 m asl-1,300 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: In Mv, an adult was discovered hiding in the bushes not far from a human settlement.

Family Typhlopidae
Indotyphlops braminus (Daudin 1803) (Fig. 8B) Common name: Brahminy blindsnake, Bootlace Snake and Flowerpot Snake Type locality: India Distribution and habitat: Although this blind snake is believed to have originated in Asia or Africa, it has been introduced to many continents, including Europe, America, Oceania, and Australia. It is frequently encountered in both populated and forested areas up to an elevation of 0 m asl-2,000 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016). Local remarks: This blind snake was found in Mv on walkways near a human settlement.

Family Xenodermidae
Xenodermus javanicus (Reinhardt 1836) (Fig. 8C) Common name: Dragon snake, Xenodermine Snake and Java Tubercle Snake Type locality: Indonesia (Java) Distribution and habitat: It has been reported to occur in Indonesia as well as other Southeast Asian countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, and Malaysia. They inhabit lowland forests and agricultural areas between 500 m asl and 1,100 m asl (Uetz et al. 2016).
Local remarks: Above the mossy rocks, an adult individual was discovered. In Ms, the snake had recently finished eating Leptobrachium hasseltii. Additionally, we discovered juveniles above the leaf litter near the Ds.

Distribution across sites and vegetational types
A total of 372 individuals comprising of 43 herpetofauna species were collected from the western part of Nusa Kambangan Island, from various sites, habitat complexes and/or vegetational types. Fig. 9 shows diversity indices consisting of species richness, diversity index, abundance, and dominance index based on the surveyed sites. Ms had the highest number of species richness (19)   Lowland forest type 1 had the highest species richness with 20 species (11 reptiles, 9 amphibians) associated with the presence of specialists such as R. reinwardtii, C. dentata, A. cartilaginea, and X. javanicus, followed by paddy field and timber production forest with 16 species (10 reptiles, 6 amphibians) but mostly consisting of generalists such as F. cancrivora, F. limnocharis, C. chalconota, P. leucomystax, B. jubata, E. multifasciata, A. prasina, and D. pictus (Fig. 10; Table 3). The mangrove forest type 2 had the lowest species richness, with only 3 species (1 reptiles, 2 amphibians). Species richness varied across habitat complexes and/or vegetation types.     : Table entries include  The average air temperature is between 26°C-30°C, and the average relative humidity is between 85%-100% (Table 4). Mss was the most humid site due to recent rain, but also the driest due to the unavailability of water bodies. The remainders depict varying degrees of mean air temperature and mean humidity, with Ms yielding the most species. The majority of herpetofauna species discovered during our survey were predominantly associated with streams, rivers, and areas adjacent to water bodies.

DISCUSSION
According to our surveys, the total herpetofauna species comprised 21% of the herpetofauna species found in Java (i.e., 47 amphibians by Frost 2020; 161 reptiles by Uetz et al. 2016). Comparing species richness directly across Java sites is impractical due to the size difference in the surveyed area, the disparity in sampling efforts, and the differences in sampling skills and experiences Kusrini et al. 2021). However, comprehending the herpetofauna's diversity generally requires such direct comparisons. Kadafi et al. (2020) discovered a total of 38 species of herpetofauna in Kondang Merak forest, one of the few remaining lowland rainforests in Java. Their surveys listed 8 amphibians, 15 lizards, and 15 snakes. Milto and Lukin (2020) examined species diversity in Ujung Kulon National Park, one of the few remaining areas in Java with a primary lowland rainforest. They found 21 amphibian and 65 reptile species, 15 of which (17%) were newly discovered, updating the previous list. These demonstrates that the amphibian and reptile fauna of Java's lowland forests is diverse and waiting to be found. Kalophrynus minusculus, a rare microhylid previously restricted to West Java's Ujung Kulon National Park (Zug 2015), has been confirmed in our studies, which require detailed examination because detailed morphology, morphometry, and molecular data have never been reported (Iskandar 1998;Zug 2015). Our surveys confirmed the presence of Dendrelaphis underwoodi, which was previously thought to be restricted to West Java (Uetz et al. 2016). This demonstrates that numerous herpetofauna species are likely waiting to be discovered, and with additional surveys, particularly in the eastern part of Nusa Kambangan Island, we expect discovering additional herpetofauna species not previously reported.
Java retains only a few pristine areas as a result of rapid population growth, which exacerbates forest degradation and land conversion ). This will eventually leave small patches of natural habitat capable of supporting lowland forest herpetofauna (Namkhan et al. 2020), such as Nusa Kambangan Island. This island is home to a sparse population of residents who are spread throughout the region. The majority of residents rely on the island's natural resources, which, if depleted, could be detrimental not only to the herpetofauna, but also to the environment, overall biodiversity, and residents. Unfortunately, this island is impacted by human activities such as limestone mining (Ayuningrum & Purnaweni 2018), illegal logging and fuel wood chopping (Robiansyah & Davy 2015), and mangrove habitat degradation (Hariyadi & Madduppa 2018).
Another way to aid conservation efforts on Nusa Kambangan Island could be to conduct research on ecologically significant species (Mills et al. 1993). Given the inevitable anthropogenic threats, community-based conservation may be a much preferable option for ensuring biodiversity's welfare and sustainability (Berkes 2007). For instance, residents of Nusa Kambangan Island rely heavily on natural resources such as clean water obtained from streams. Additionally, protecting water sources may also protects habitats for highly sensitive species such as C. dentata and A. cartilaginea. Disseminating information about their ecosystem services may alter residents' perceptions and help them avoid overexploitation of natural resources. Numerous herpetofauna species, including P. leucomystax (tolerance for disturbed habitat) and R. reinwardtii (usually found in pristine areas), can be used as bioindicators of environmental change or habitat disturbance. Additional research is required to ensure the effectiveness of community-based conservation, including local attitudes, participation, conservation awareness, and good governance.

CONCLUSION
Our initial surveys on Nusa Kambangan Island's west part resulted in the identification of 43 herpetofauna species (16 amphibians and 27 reptiles). Our analyses indicate that Nusa Kambangan Island is capable of supporting suitable habitats for a diverse herpetofauna, but the habitats have been threatened by human disturbance. Community-based conservation efforts may provide an alternative method of conserving the island's biodiversity. We hope to encounter additional herpetofauna species in the future through additional surveys, particularly in the eastern part of Nusa Kambangan Island.