Total heterotrophic bacteria (THB), Total coliform (E. coli) and Faecal coliform counts
The result of bacteriological analysis of the water samples obtained from the study location in (Table 1) showed Escherichia coli as the predominant bacteria, followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella aerogenes. Others were Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus subtilis. These bacteria isolated from the four water sources in the study area, presented a Total heterotrophic bacterial (THB) and Total Coliform (TC) counts with Well water, especially that from Angwan Madugu having the most contamination (i.e., 8.5x104CFU/ml) and 800-1500MPN/100ml), and 13 MPN/100ml for Faecal coliforms. This source was followed by Borehole water that recorded 68MPN/100ml TC count from Angwan Mission and 35MPN/100ml from Angwan Gada’s boreholes.
Tap water had the lest feacal contamination and presence of other Enterobacteria, aside Enterococcus faecalis with Angwan Mission’s Well having the most contamination with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2.2x103), Chaha road area’s Borehole had the most Klebsiella aerogenes (2.5x102) bacteria, while Angwan Gada’s well recorded the highest Salmonella typhi presence (2.4x103). The highest number of Enterococcus faecalis (i.e., 1.6x103) was seen in Angwan Madugu’s Rain water source, with same area’s well water recording the utmost (2.2x103) Shigella flexneri water. The reason for this bacteria presence may be ascribed to the fact that Angwan Madugu being a slum with old houses has a lot of unhygienic areas like toilets, dump sites closer to most of their unsealed wells.
Table 1
Total heterotrophic bacteria (THB), total coliform (E. coli) and faecal coliform counts from water samples in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state
Sample site
|
THB (CFU/ml)
|
Total (E. coli) coliform
(MPN/100ml)
|
Faecal coliform
(MPN/100ml)
|
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(CFU/ml)
|
Klebsiella aerogenes
(CFU/ml)
|
Salmonella typhi (CFU/ml)
|
Enterococcus faecalis (CFU/ml)
|
Shigella flexneri
(CFU/ml)
|
Tap 1
|
1.2x102
|
2
|
0
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Tap 2
|
1.3x102
|
3
|
0
|
OND
|
1.2 x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Well 1
|
2.5x103
|
38
|
4
|
2.2 x102
|
2.4 x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Well 2
|
2.8x103
|
48
|
7
|
2.5 x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
2.1 x102
|
Well 3
|
3.5x103
|
55
|
5
|
OND
|
1.8x103
|
2.2x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
Well 4
|
5.3x104
|
140
|
9
|
2.2x103
|
2.5x103
|
2.4x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
Well 5
|
8.5x104
|
800–1500
|
13
|
OND
|
2.3x102
|
2.0x103
|
1.5x102
|
2.2x103
|
Borehole 1
|
1.4x103
|
8
|
1
|
1.2x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Borehole 2
|
1.8x103
|
15
|
1
|
1.8x102
|
2.5x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Borehole 3
|
2.4x103
|
35
|
4
|
2.1x102
|
1.5x103
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Borehole 4
|
3.8x103
|
68
|
5
|
1.5x102
|
OND
|
1.2x102
|
OND
|
1.3x103
|
Rain 1
|
2.1x102
|
18
|
2
|
1.4x103
|
OND
|
OND
|
1.5x103
|
OND
|
Rain 2
|
1.75x102
|
15
|
2
|
OND
|
1.5x103
|
OND
|
OND
|
OND
|
Rain 3
|
2.2x102
|
20
|
2
|
1.2x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
1.2x102
|
OND
|
Rain 4
|
2.3x102
|
25
|
3
|
1.3x102
|
OND
|
1.5x102
|
OND
|
OND
|
Rain 5
|
2.3x104
|
35
|
4
|
OND
|
2.1x102
|
1.8x102
|
1.6x103
|
OND
|
KEY: OND-Organism Not Detected 1 = NVRI compound, 2 = Chaha road area, 3 = Angwan Gada, 4 = Angwan Mission, 5 = Angwan Madugu |
Bacteria isolated from water sources in the study area, health-related conditions and reference
From the various bacteria isolated from water sources within the study area, their health-related conditions and citations (Table 2). Escherichia coli being the most prominent bacteria isolated from all water sources within the locality has most strains that are harmless. Though some virulent strains cause urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, and neonatal meningitis, while others have been connected to food poisoning [41]. Apart from E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa which typically infects the pulmonary tract is most times an opportunistic organism found in immunosuppressed persons and causes urinary tract infections, burns and wounds infections [42, 27]. It was the second most abundant bacterial water contaminant present in 10 water sources, followed by Klebsiella aerogenes which causes diseases like Pneumonia, septicemia, spondylitis, and ankylosing [43].
Bacillus subtilis which is implicated to allergic reactions in individuals on repeated exposure, food poisoning, bacteremia, endocarditis, pneumonia, and septicemia [44, 45] was present in only 2 water sources being wells at Chaha road area and Borehole at Angwan Mission. Wells in Angwan Gada, Angwan Mission and Angwan Madugu along with Rain waters from Angwan Mission and Angwan Madugu were all contaminated with Salmonella typhi. Shigella flexneri was observed only in well water sources from Chaha road area and Angwan Madugu. While Enterococcus faecalis was isolated from Angwan Madugu’s well water and Rain waters sources from NVRI compound, Angwan Gada and Angwan Madugu. Staphylococcus aureus was found in only 2 water sources being Angwan Madugu well water and Chaha road area’s Rain water, Results revealed that the water source with the least bacterial contaminants was Tap within the NVRI compound and Well water from Angwan Madugu had the most bacterial contaminants
Table 2
Water sources, bacteria isolated in the study area, health-related conditions and reference
Water source
|
Bacteria Isolated
|
Health risk/Disease(s) associated
|
Reference
|
Tap 1 (pipe)
|
E. coli
|
E. coli: Most strains are harmless but some strains are associated with food poisoning and virulent strains may cause urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, and neonatal meningitis
|
[41]
|
Tap 2 (pipe)
|
E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes
|
Well 1
|
E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, P. aeruginosa
|
Well 2
|
E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, P. aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri
|
P. aeruginosa: Occurs as an opportunistic organism found in immunosuppressed individuals and classically infects the pulmonary tract and urinary tract infections, burns and wounds infections.
|
[42, 27]
|
Well 3
|
E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi,
|
Well 4
|
E. coli¸ Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, P. aeruginosa
|
Klebsiella aerogenes: Implicated to diseases such as Pneumonia, septicemia, spondylitis, and ankylosing
|
[43]
|
Well 5
|
E. coli, Staph. aureus, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis, Shigella flexneri
|
Bacillus subtilis: Causes allergic reactions in persons with repeated exposure, food poisoning, bacteremia, endocarditis, pneumonia, and septicemia
|
[44, 45]
|
Borehole 1
|
E. coli, P. aeruginosa
|
Salmonella typhi: Causes food-borne acute gastroenteritis, enterocolitis, invasive bacteraemia, typhoid fever
|
[46, 47]
|
Borehole 2
|
E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, P. aeruginosa
|
Borehole 3
|
E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella aerogenes
|
Borehole 4
|
E. coli¸ P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis
|
Shigella flexneri: Shigellosis, dysentery, bacteremia and other extraintestinal infections
|
[48, 46]
|
Rain 1
|
E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis
|
Enterococcus faecalis: Associated with Nosocomial infections like catheter-related urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, neonatal sepsis, surgical and burn wound infections, and more rarely meningitis
|
[49, 50]
|
Rain 2
|
Klebsiella aerogenes, E. coli, Staph. aureus
|
Rain 3
|
E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis,
|
Staphycoccus aureus. It commonly leads to abscess formation and causes skin infections like Scalded skin syndrome, folliculitis, furuncle, carbuncle, impetigo and Toxic shock syndrome. Sometimes cause pneumonia, endocarditis, bacteremia & osteomyelitis. Some elaborate strains produce toxins that cause gastroenteritis, and Staphylococcal food poisoning
|
[51, 52]
|
Rain 4
|
Salmonella typhi, E. coli, P. aeruginosa
|
Rain 5
|
E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis
|
KEY: E-Escherichia, P- Pseudomonas, Staph-Staphylococcus |
Physicochemical characteristics of water sources
The Mean results for the Physicochemical parameters like pH, Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Nitrates, Phosphate, Sulphate, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) are presented in Table 3. (a, b, c & d). The sum of 2 tap water samples, 3 Boreholes, and 4 each of Rain and Well water sources were tabulated with the various Means. The mean values for all the physicochemical parameters assessed from Tap water [Table 3(a)] were all within the WHO permissible limits, apart from the TSS (0.09) which was above the WHO standard. Other parameters tested from Well water [Table 3. (b)] had Mean values that were within WHO standard limits aside TSS (0.25) and BOD (10.5). From the mean values obtained from Borehole water sources, Table 3(c), only TSS, Nitrates and Phosphates values (0.02, 150 and 5.7) were above the WHO permissible limits. And finally, mean values observed from Rain water sources Table 3(d), showed most physicochemical measurements falling within the WHO standard limits, apart from those obtained for TSS and Nitrates which were 0.20 and 65.5 respectively
Table 3
(a) Physicochemical characteristics of Tap (pipe-borne) water sources
Water source
|
pH
|
T0C
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
TSS (mg/L)
|
TDS
|
TH
|
Nitrate (mg/L)
|
Phosphate
|
Sulphate
|
COD
|
BOD
|
Tap 1.
|
6.1
|
25.8
|
2.4
|
0.15
|
135
|
190
|
28.8
|
2.2
|
1.7
|
0.16
|
6.6
|
Tap 2.
|
6.3
|
27.2
|
2.6
|
0.03
|
261
|
150
|
48.4
|
2.8
|
2.3
|
0.14
|
5.8
|
Mean
|
6.2
|
26.5
|
2.5
|
0.09
|
198
|
170
|
38.6
|
2.5
|
2.0
|
0.15
|
6.2
|
Permissible limit
|
6.5–8.5
|
25–30
|
5.0
|
0.01
|
< 300
|
100–500
|
< 50
|
1 - <5.0
|
250
|
30–350
|
6–10
|
Table 3
(b) Physicochemical characteristics of Well water sources
Water source
|
pH
|
T0C
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
TSS (mg/L)
|
TDS
|
TH
|
Nitrate (mg/L)
|
Phosp-hate
|
Sulphate
|
COD
|
BOD
|
Well 1.
|
6.40
|
23.5
|
3.6
|
0.31
|
260
|
220
|
42.5
|
3.7
|
2.8
|
0,21
|
9.5
|
Well 2.
|
6.20
|
21.5
|
3.5
|
0.15
|
310
|
210
|
55.0
|
3.9
|
3.1
|
0.18
|
8.5
|
Well 3.
|
6.00
|
22.0
|
3.9
|
0.09
|
280
|
185
|
38.2
|
2.5
|
3.3
|
0.30
|
12.6
|
Well 4.
|
6.15
|
24.0
|
2.8
|
0.50
|
240
|
260
|
37.3
|
4.1
|
2.8
|
0.28
|
10.9
|
Well 5
|
6.50
|
23.0
|
4.2
|
0.2
|
260
|
275
|
53.5
|
4.8
|
3.0
|
0.23
|
11.0
|
Mean
|
6.25
|
22.8
|
3.6
|
0.25
|
270
|
230
|
45.3
|
3.8
|
3.0
|
0.24
|
10.5
|
Permissible limit
|
6.5–8.5
|
25–30
|
5.0
|
0.01
|
< 300
|
100–500
|
< 50
|
1 - <5.0
|
250
|
30–350
|
6–10
|
Table 3
(c) Physicochemical characteristics of Borehole water sources
Water source
|
pH
|
T0C
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
TSS (mg/L)
|
TDS
|
TH
|
Nitrate (mg/L)
|
Phosp-hate
|
Sulphate
|
COD
|
BOD
|
Borehole 1.
|
6.3
|
28.5
|
3.5
|
0.02
|
130
|
270
|
155
|
6.5
|
2.5
|
0.20
|
8.9
|
Borehole 2.
|
6.5
|
27.5
|
3.0
|
0.01
|
115
|
275
|
150
|
5.6
|
3.0
|
0.19
|
8.3
|
Borehole 3.
|
6.4
|
27.0
|
2.5
|
0.02
|
110
|
285
|
135
|
4.9
|
2.3
|
0.23
|
8.6
|
Borehole 4.
|
6.2
|
29
|
3.8
|
0.03
|
125
|
290
|
160
|
5.8
|
2.2
|
0.26
|
8.2
|
Mean
|
6.35
|
28
|
3.2
|
0.02
|
120
|
280
|
150
|
5.7
|
2.5
|
0.22
|
8.5
|
Permissible limit
|
6.5–8.5
|
25–30
|
5.0
|
0.01
|
< 300
|
100–500
|
< 50
|
1 - <5.0
|
250
|
30–350
|
6–10
|
Table 3
(d) Physicochemical characteristics of Rain water sources
Water source
|
pH
|
T0C
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
TSS (mg/L)
|
TDS
|
TH
|
Nitrate (mg/L)
|
Phosphate
|
Sulphate
|
COD
|
BOD
|
Rain 1.
|
6.3
|
24.9
|
4.0
|
0.10
|
200
|
175
|
65.0
|
4.2
|
4.95
|
0.20
|
7.2
|
Rain 2.
|
6.1
|
24.4
|
3.9
|
0.30
|
240
|
186
|
64.6
|
5.2
|
4.05
|
0.10
|
7.9
|
Rain 3.
|
6.5
|
25.0
|
3.6
|
0.20
|
225
|
195
|
66.2
|
4.3
|
5.50
|
0.16
|
7.0
|
Rain 4.
|
6.7
|
26.7
|
4.2
|
0.09
|
235
|
196
|
62.8
|
4.1
|
4.60
|
0.25
|
7.4
|
Rain 5
|
6.8
|
26.5
|
4.3
|
0.31
|
250
|
198
|
68.9
|
4.7
|
4.90
|
0.29
|
8.0
|
Mean
|
6.5
|
25.5
|
4.0
|
0.20
|
230
|
190
|
65.5
|
4.5
|
4.80
|
0.20
|
7.5
|
Permissible limit
|
6.5–8.5
|
25–30
|
5.0
|
0.01
|
< 300
|
100–500
|
< 50
|
1 - <5.0
|
250
|
30–350
|
6–10
|
Statistical Analysis for the Physicochemical parameters of water samples from four water sources in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state
The summarized physicochemical parameters and Statistical analysis of water samples from the four water sources in the locality (Table 4), showed rain water having the highest pH of 6.50 Mean of 6.33 ± 0.07 Standard error, 0.132 Standard Deviation, with the highest t-Test score value of 95.63, and a very significant p-value of 0.001 falling between a 95% close range Confidence Interval of 6.11–6.54. Borehole water source recorded the highest temperature of 280C with Mean of 26.950C±0.59 Standard error, Standard Deviation of 1.173, a high t-Test score of 45.94, a very significant p-value of 0.001 falling between a 95% close range confidence interval of 25.08–28.82. Various other parameters like Turbidity, TDS, Total Hardness, Phosphate, Sulphate and COD had high t-Test scores with significant p-value at 95% close range confidence intervals, while Well water had the highest TSS of 0.25mg/L, with Mean value 0. 14 ± 0.05, SD 0.104, low t-Test score of 2.69 and a non-significant p-value of 0.075(95% CI of -0.03-0.31). Other parameter like Nitrates and BOD also recorded low t-Test score values of 2.91 for Nitrates and 2.94. Nitrates had a Mean of 74.9 ± 25.7 SE, SD 51.39, and non-significant p-value of 0.062 (95%CI wide range of -6.92-156.62), while BOD had a Mean of 6.13 ± 2.08 SE, a Standard deviation of 4.17 with a non-significant p-value of 0.060 (95% CI wide range of 0.50 to12.75) accordingly.
Table 4
Summarized Physicochemical parameters and Statistical analysis of water from four sources in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state
Test Parameter
(Unit)
|
Water source
|
|
WHO Limits
|
Total Mean ± SE
|
Standard
Dev.
|
t-Test
|
p-value
|
95% Confidence
Interval
|
Borehole
|
Tap
|
Rain
|
Well
|
pH
|
6.35
|
6.20
|
6.50
|
6.25
|
6.5–8.5
|
6.33 ± 0.07
|
0.132
|
95.63
|
0.001⁕⁕
|
6.11–6.54
|
Temperature (o C)
|
28.0
|
26.5
|
25.5
|
27.80
|
25–30
|
26.95 ± 0.59
|
1.173
|
45.94
|
0.001⁕⁕
|
25.08–28.82
|
Turbidity (NTU)
|
3.2
|
2.5
|
4.0
|
3.6
|
5.0
|
3.33 ± 0.32
|
0.640
|
10.40
|
0.002⁕
|
2.31–4.34
|
Total Suspended Solid (mg/L)
|
0.02
|
0.09
|
0.20
|
0.25
|
0.01
|
0.14 ± 0.05
|
0.104
|
2.69
|
0.075
|
-0.03-0.31
|
Total Dissolved Solid (mg/L)
|
120
|
198
|
230
|
270
|
< 300
|
204.5 ± 31.78
|
63.568
|
6.43
|
0.008⁕
|
103.35-305.65
|
Total hardness (mg/L)
|
280
|
170
|
190
|
230
|
100–500
|
217.5 ± 24.28
|
48.563
|
8.96
|
0.003⁕
|
140.23-294.77
|
Nitrate (mg/L)
|
120.0
|
38.6
|
65.5
|
45.3
|
< 50
|
74.9 ± 25.7
|
51.39
|
2.91
|
0.062
|
-6.92-156.62
|
Phosphate (mg/L)
|
5.70.
|
2.50
|
4.50
|
3.80
|
1 - <5.0
|
4.13 ± 0.67
|
1.338
|
6.17
|
0.009⁕
|
2.00-6.25
|
Sulphate (mg/L)
|
2.50
|
2.00
|
4.80
|
3.00
|
250
|
3.08 ± 0.61
|
1.220
|
5.04
|
0.015⁕
|
1.13–5.02
|
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L)
|
0.22
|
0.15
|
0.20
|
0.24
|
30–350
|
0.20 ± 0.02
|
0.039
|
10.49
|
0.002⁕
|
0.14-0 .26
|
Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/L)
|
4.80
|
2.20
|
5.50
|
12.00
|
6–10
|
6.13 ± 2.08
|
4.17
|
2.94
|
0.060
|
-0.50-12.75
|
* =Significant p-value, **Very significant p-value |