Context and importance of wildlife conservation in the Anthropocene
Globally, human land use, especially on private lands, has precipitated a major decline in biodiversity. Vertebrate populations declined by 68% between 1970 and 2018, and habitat conversion on private lands was a significant driver of these declines (Almond et al. 2022). A significant portion of Australia’s unique biodiversity is found on private lands. The continent's rich biodiversity, in which over 80% of its species being endemic, is both threatened and protected by actions on private properties (Fitzsimons 2015; Legge et al. 2023). Private lands play a crucial role in global biodiversity conservation (Knight 1999), where they harbor rich and unique ecosystems. Private land ownership was historically focused on productive parts of the landscape. As such, private properties today support especially abundant and diverse wildlife communities (Rayner et al. 2014; Jenkins et al. 2015; Clancy et al. 2020), including threatened species, and offer conservation opportunities distinct from public reserves (Ivanova and Cook 2020; Bingham et al. 2021).
Private-land conservation faces unique challenges, such as aligning landowner interests with broader ecological goals and overcoming knowledge gaps. Wildlife populations do not conform to human-designated boundaries, making their management on private lands inherently challenging (Pulsford et al. 2013a). The distribution, movement, and life-history strategies of species necessitate conservation approaches that are spatially explicit, accounting for both the site-scale habitat requirements and landscape-level processes that require migration corridors, habitat connectivity, and ecological fluxes across multiple properties (Mackey et al. 2013). Private lands also offer unique opportunities for conservation. With appropriate management, these lands can serve as vital refuges and ‘stepping stones’ for wildlife between protected areas and reserves, mitigating some of the impacts of habitat fragmentation (Figgis 2004; Fitzsimons 2004; Kamal et al. 2015; Chapman et al. 2023). Conservation covenant and stewardship programs, alongside innovative approaches like citizen science and participatory action research, can complement public reserve systems and contribute to multi-tenure conservation networks (Pulsford et al. 2013b; Kamal et al. 2014; Taylor et al. 2023a). Private land conservation strategies engage landholders directly in conservation efforts, fostering knowledge sharing and collaborative management practices. This grassroots involvement is vital for effective stewardship of private lands, contributing significantly to global biodiversity conservation efforts.
The social ecological systems framework
Wildlife conservation on private lands is complex because it lies at the intersection of ecology, economics, and human values, making it a quintessential example of a "wicked problem" (Rittel and Webber 1973). Wicked problems are characterized by the lack of clear definitions, solutions, or objective measures of success, and they typically encompass various intertwined and often conflicting human and ecological dimensions. Social-ecological perspectives are vital in addressing such wicked problems, as they emphasize the interconnectedness of human and environmental systems (Mertens 2015; Akamani et al. 2016). This approach recognises that conservation outcomes are influenced not just by ecological factors, but also by social, economic, and cultural dynamics. On private lands, where decisions of individual landowner can have major effects on conservation efforts, gaining a better understanding of these interdependencies in the context of wildlife management is crucial. Adopting a social-ecological perspective allows for more holistic and effective strategies, as it integrates diverse stakeholder values, knowledge systems, and ecological processes, leading to more sustainable and community-supported conservation outcomes (Angelstam et al. 2013; Hummel et al. 2017; Hull et al. 2023). The application of this approach to wildlife management is a potential pathway to better understanding and addressing wicked problems that have to date largely defied resolution, despite significant research and management effort globally.
Transdisciplinary research, which transcends disciplinary boundaries and incorporates knowledge from both scientific and non-scientific sources, is increasingly recognised as a valuable approach for social-ecological research (Axelsson 2012). By involving multiple stakeholders, including local landowners, ecologists, policymakers, and the broader community, transdisciplinary research fosters holistic understandings and collaborative strategies for effective conservation management (Marchini et al. 2021). Citizen science offers a powerful tool to bridge knowledge gaps, harnessing the collective power of the community in monitoring and understanding the environment (Bonney et al. 2009; Crain et al. 2014; Strasser et al. 2019). It enables researchers to gather data at scales previously unattainable, while participants benefit from enhanced environmental awareness and a sense of stewardship. Co-created knowledge can also be used to inform and thereby improve landholders’ management of their land (Toomey and Domroese 2013; Taylor et al. 2023b).More than just a data collection tool, citizen science fosters collaborations that can inform sustainable land-management practices and empower local communities to take active roles in conservation efforts, ultimately contributing to more robust environmental outcomes (Dickinson et al. 2010; Conrad and Hilchey 2011; Tulloch et al. 2013).
Research gap and objectives of the study
Although the role of private land in wildlife conservation has been repeatedly acknowledged (refs), comprehensive social-ecological studies that integrate socio-economic, ecological, and land management variables at various spatial scales are lacking. Tasmania is a large (68,000 km2) temperate island off the south coast of Australia. Tasmania's diverse range of ecosystems and species, including many that are threatened, makes it a microcosm for understanding broader global patterns in wildlife conservation on ecologically heterogeneous, human-dominated private landscapes. The region's diverse land uses and mix of private and public lands, coupled with active community involvement in land management, makes Tasmania a relevant case study for that resonates with global social-ecological research into wildlife management.
In this study, we adopted a collaborative transdisciplinary approach, prioritising co-design with participants over traditional hypothesis development. Therefore, our preliminary research objectives were deliberately general to allow for input from landholders, practitioners, and researchers. The preliminary research objectives were as follows:
- Explore the relationships between wildlife populations and a variety of site and landscape variables on private lands.
- Employ a transdisciplinary approach, integrating ecological data with socio-economic and land management factors.
- Use appropriately sophisticated analytical methods to robustly discern patterns and drivers affecting wildlife on private properties.
- Offer practical insights for landowners and conservationists, aiming to promote collaborative, landscape-scale conservation efforts.
This approach, detailed in our methodology section, was essential in fostering a participatory research environment. The objectives served as a guiding framework, setting the scope without constraining specific investigative paths. The co-design process culminated in the formulation of a series of interrelated hypotheses, embodied in models that reflect the dynamics of the social-ecological system. These hypotheses were subsequently tested through a comprehensive suite of social and ecological data-collection methods, ensuring a robust and inclusive exploration of the system's complexities.
Focal wildlife groups and taxa
This study concentrated on native mammals and bird diversity, with a detailed focus on four mammal species. The overarching objective was to compare the biotic responses to landscape and site-scale socio-ecological drivers, a phenomenon under-explored in existing literature. While previous comparative studies have indicated that mammals and birds are similarly impacted by intensive land use, they also show nuanced differences in their reactions to landscapes that are less-intensively modified (Burel et al. 1998; Felton et al. 2010; Santangeli et al. 2022). Moreover, mammals and birds, being charismatic and readily identifiable, are of particular community interest, and established survey procedures are suitable for deployment by citizen scientists. The selection of the four focal species (eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), eastern bettong (Bettongia gaimardi), eastern quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus) and long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus)) for detailed analysis of social-ecological drivers was guided by the outputs of the stakeholder workshop. The species selected are all in the ‘critical weight range’ of high extinction risk in Australia (Johnson and Isaac 2009), and are especially susceptible to predation by feral cats. The species were expected to show both commonalities and contrasts in their response to habitat condition at site and landscape scales, thereby providing valuable insights into the complex dynamics of habitat-species interactions and socio-ecological drivers.