Characterization and antiviral susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron/BA.2

The recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants possessing large numbers of mutations has raised concerns of decreased effectiveness of current vaccines, therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, and antiviral drugs for COVID-19 against these variants1,2. While the original Omicron lineage, BA.1, has become dominant in many countries, BA.2 has been detected in at least 67 countries and has become dominant in the Philippines, India, and Denmark. Here, we evaluated the replicative ability and pathogenicity of an authentic infectious BA.2 isolate in immunocompetent and human ACE2 (hACE2)-expressing mice and hamsters. In contrast to recent data with chimeric, recombinant SARS-CoV-2 strains expressing the spike proteins of BA.1 and BA.2 on an ancestral WK-521 backbone3, we observed similar infectivity and pathogenicity in mice and hamsters between BA.2 and BA.1, and less pathogenicity compared to early SARS-CoV-2 strains. We also observed a marked and significant reduction in the neutralizing activity of plasma from COVID-19 convalescent individuals and vaccine recipients against BA.2 compared to ancestral and Delta variant strains. In addition, we found that some therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (REGN10987/REGN10933, COV2-2196/COV2-2130, and S309) and antiviral drugs (molnupiravir, nirmatrelvir, and S-217622) can restrict viral infection in the respiratory organs of hamsters infected with BA.2. These findings suggest that the replication and pathogenicity of BA.2 is comparable to that of BA.1 in rodents and that several therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and antiviral compounds are effective against Omicron/BA.2 variants.

Recently, we and others showed that BA.1 variants are less pathogenic in animal models than previously circulating variants of concern (VOC) [6][7][8] , consistent with preliminary clinical data in humans 9 . Moreover, other studies have reported that BA.1 variants show reduced sensitivity to vaccine-or infection-induced antibodies, as well as some therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) [10][11][12][13][14] . The spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 mediates viral receptor-binding and membrane fusion, both of which are essential for viral infection of host cells. The S protein is also the principal antigen targeted by the host neutralizing antibody response 15 . Importantly, mutations in the S protein, such as E484K N501Y, D614G, and P681H/R, have been shown to affect the infectivity, pathogenicity, transmissibility, species tropism, and/or antigenicity of SARS-CoV-2 [16][17][18][19][20] . Compared with the reference strain Wuhan/Hu-1/2019, the BA.1 and BA.2 variants have 36 and 31 amino acid substitutions in the S protein, respectively. Although the BA.1 and BA.2 variants share 20 of these substitutions, BA.2 possesses 11 amino acid changes not found in BA.1. These ndings suggest that the replicative capacity, pathogenicity, transmissibility, and antigenicity of BA.2 variants may differ from BA.1 variants. Here, we characterized the functional activity of a BA.2 variant in vivo. In addition, we evaluated the e cacy of therapeutic mAbs and antiviral drugs for COVID-19 against BA.2 variants in vivo.

BA.2 and BA.1 Omicron variants show similar attenuated pathogenicity in mice
We isolated a BA.2 variant from a traveler who arrived in Japan from India. The S protein of this isolate contains 31 amino acid changes (Extended Data Table 1)  Given that the BA.2 variant possesses substitutions including K417N, E484K, and N501Y in its S protein, and that these amino acids substitutions are key for mouse adaptation [21][22][23] , we predicted that this variant would infect immunocompetent mice and replicate in their respiratory organs as is seen with BA.1 variants. We therefore inoculated female BALB/c mice with 10 5 plaque-forming units (PFU) of BA.1 (NC928) or BA.2 (NCD1288), or PBS (mock), and assessed weights for 10 days. Intranasal inoculation of BALB/c mice with BA.1 or BA.2 did not cause body weight changes (Fig. 1a). We also measured pulmonary function in the infected mice by measuring Penh and Rpef, which are surrogate markers for bronchoconstriction and airway obstruction, respectively, by using a whole-body plethysmography (WBP) system. Changes in Penh or Rpef were not observed in the BA.1-or BA.2-infected groups at any timepoint post-infection compared to the mock-infected group (Fig. 1b). In contrast, our previous data showed that B.1.351, which also has the N501Y substitution in its S protein, caused a signi cant increase in Penh and a decrease in Rpef at 2 days post-infection (dpi) 6 . BALB/c mice infected with BA.1 or BA.2 exhibited similar viral titers in nasal turbinates; however, the mean virus titer of BA.2 in the lungs [mean titer = 6.9 log 10 (PFU/g)] was slightly but signi cantly higher than that of BA.1 [mean titer = 6.4 log 10 (PFU/g)] (Fig. 1c, left panels). At 5 dpi, the lung titers in the BA.2-infected group were lower (33-fold, P < 0.001) than those in the BA.1-infected group, although no differences in viral titers in the nasal turbinates were observed between the two groups at this timepoint (Fig. 1c, right panels).
We then performed a histopathological analysis of the lungs of BALB/c mice infected with BA.1 (NC928) or BA.2 (NC1288). In both BA.1-and BA.2-infected mice, in ammatory cell in ltration around the bronchi/bronchioles and in the alveolar spaces was minimal at 2 and 5 dpi (Fig. 1d). In situ hybridization revealed that viral RNA was present in the bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium of both BA.1-and BA.2infected mice, with no differences between the infecting viruses at 2 dpi (Fig. 1d). The distribution of viral antigen, as determined by immunohistochemistry, was similar to that of viral RNA in both BA.1-and BA.2infected mice (Extended Data Fig. 2a). In both BA.1-and BA.2-infected mice, the amount of detectable viral RNA and antigen decreased over time (Fig. 1d, Extended Data Fig. 2a). These results suggest that while both BA.1 and BA.2 infect bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium in the lungs of BALB/c mice, they displayed substantially less infectivity in the lung of these mice than the Beta variant 6 .
We also assessed the in ammatory responses in the lungs of BALB/c mice. Consistent with our previous study 6 , BA.1 (NC928)-infected BALB/c mice showed similar cytokine/chemokine levels at 1, 2, or 3 dpi as naïve mice. Mice infected with BA.2 (NC1288) had signi cantly higher levels of several pro-in ammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as IL-1β, IFN-γ, and MIP-1β, compared to mice inoculated with BA.1 at 2 or 3 dpi. However, cytokine and chemokine levels were much lower in the lungs of BA.2 than Beta/B.1.351 (HP01542)-infected mice ( Fig. 1e and Extended Data Fig. 1). These results suggest that infection with BA.2 induces a more limited in ammatory response in lungs of mice than B.1.351.
We also evaluated the replication of BA.2 in a more susceptible mouse model 24 , that is, K18-hACE2 transgenic mice, which express hACE2 under the control of an epithelial cytokeratin promoter 25 . At 3 dpi, the virus titers in the lungs and nasal turbinates were substantially (400-to 1000-fold) lower in the respiratory tract of animals infected with BA.2 compared to mice infected with WA1/2020 D614G; the viral RNA levels in the lungs, nasal turbinates, and nasal washes were similarly lower (Fig. 1f, g). Taken together, these ndings indicate that Omicron/BA.2 is less pathogenic in mice, similar to that reported for BA.1 6-8 .

BA.2 and BA.1 Omicron variants show similar replication and pathogenicity in hamsters
We next evaluated the replication and pathogenicity of the BA.2 variant in Syrian hamsters, a wellestablished small animal model for the study of COVID-19 [26][27][28] . Syrian hamsters were inoculated with 10 5 PFU or 10 3 PFU of BA.1 (NC928) or BA.2 (NCD1288). No differences in weight change were observed between the BA.1-and BA.2-infected groups, with all animals gaining weight (Fig. 2a). Pulmonary function also was evaluated in the infected hamsters using the WBP system. Infection with the BA.2 or BA.1 variant did not cause substantial changes in either Penh or Rpef (Fig. 2b).
Next, we evaluated levels of infection in the respiratory tract of Syrian hamsters. At 3 dpi, in contrast to that seen in mice, virus titers in nasal turbinates were slightly but signi cantly higher in the hamsters infected with BA.1 than BA. 2, regardless of the inoculation dose (Fig. 2c). Differences in viral titers in the lungs were not observed between animals infected with BA.1 or BA.2 with the high 10 5 PFU dose at 3 dpi.
However, the viral titers in the lungs of hamsters infected with the 10 3 PFU inoculating dose of BA.2 were lower (>100 fold) than those infected with 10 3 PFU of BA.1 (Fig. 2c).
To compare the relative tness and infectivity of BA.1 and BA.2, ve hamsters were inoculated with 2 x 10 3 PFU of a mixture (1:1) of BA.1 (NC928) and BA.2 (NCD1288). At 4 dpi, the nasal turbinates and lungs of the infected hamsters were harvested and assessed by Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) to determine the ratio of BA.1 to BA.2. The ratio was calculated on the basis of the differences between these two viruses across 16 regions in the S protein. NGS analysis revealed that BA.1 became dominant in the nasal turbinates of all ve infected animals (Fig. 2d). Due to low read depth, we were unable to determine the ratio in the lung samples from four of the ve animals; the sample from the fth animal showed a slightly greater prevalence of BA.1. These results show that BA.1 outcompetes BA.2 during upper airway tract replication in hamsters.
We next performed microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) to assess for lung abnormalities in hamsters at 7 dpi. We used a previously de ned CT severity score (see Legend and Methods) to evaluate animals for ground glass opacities, nodules, and regions of lung consolidation 29 . Micro-CT analysis revealed minimal lung abnormalities in all of the BA.2-infected hamsters, and in 62.5% (5 out of 8) of the BA.1infected hamsters, including minimal, patchy, ill-de ned, peri-bronchial ground glass opacity, and a few, small, focal rounded/nodular regions, consistent with minimal pneumonia (Fig. 2e, Extended Data Fig. 3). These imaging features can be seen with COVID-19 pneumonia, but are nonspeci c and can occur with a variety of infectious and noninfectious processes 29 . BA.2-infected hamsters had slightly higher CT severity scores (mean of 1.5 for 10 3 PFU-inoculated hamsters; mean of 2 for 10 5 PFU-inoculated hamsters) than BA.1-infected hamsters (mean of 0.75 for 10 3 PFU-inoculated hamsters; mean of 1.25 for 10 5 PFU-inoculated hamsters), due to lung abnormalities being present in a slightly higher number of lobes in BA.2-infected hamsters. Thus, the differences in lung abnormalities between BA.2-and BA.1infected hamsters were subtle based on micro-CT analysis. In contrast to commonly reported imaging features of COVID-19 pneumonia, Syrian hamsters infected with BA.1 or BA.2 showed minimal lung abnormalities and no lung consolidation, which contrasts with earlier studies with ancestral or other VOC 19,[26][27][28]30 , and is consistent with our prior analysis of BA.1 infection 6 .
We also surveyed for histopathological changes in the lungs of BA.1-or BA.2-infected hamsters. This examination revealed that neutrophils and mononuclear cells in ltrate the bronchial/bronchiolar epithelium and subepithelial connective tissues in the bronchi/bronchioles of both BA.1 (NC928)-and BA.2 (NCD1288)-infected hamsters at 6 dpi despite minimal in ammation at 3 dpi (Fig. 2f, Extended Data We also investigated the infection and pathogenicity of BA.2 using a more susceptible hamster model, that is, transgenic hamsters expressing hACE2 under the control of an epithelial cytokeratin-18 promoter 31 . Intranasal inoculation of hamsters with 10 3 PFU of D614G (HP095) virus caused remarkable weight loss (> 10%) within the rst week (Fig. 2g) and resulted in 100% mortality at 10 dpi (Fig. 2h). In contrast, a small decrease in body weight (< 6%) was observed for most animals infected with BA.2 (NCD1288), similar to our previous ndings with BA.1 6 . The lung titers in the BA.2-infected group were approximately 300-to 1,000-fold lower than those in the D614G (HP095)-infected group at 3 and 5 dpi (Fig. 2i), although both viruses replicated to similar levels in the nasal turbinates. These results demonstrate that BA.2 is attenuated in its replication in the lower respiratory tract of hACE2 transgenic hamsters.
Overall, our observations indicate that the replication and pathogenicity in mice and hamsters of BA. The 50% FRNT (FRNT 50 ) geometric mean titers of plasma from individuals immunized with a third dose of the BNT162b2 vaccine against BA.1, BA1.1, and BA.2 were signi cantly reduced (by 3.4-to 5.9-fold) compared with those against the ancestral and Delta strains (Fig. 3a). This reduction in neutralizing titers was similar between the three Omicron viruses. FRNT 50 geometric mean titers against BA.1, BA1.1, and BA.2 after administration of a second dose of the BNT162b2 vaccine in previously infected individuals were 2.9-to 6.5-fold lower than those against the ancestral and Delta strains; however, this reduction in neutralizing titers was larger for BA.1 and BA.1.1 than for BA.2 at both 1-and 3-months post-vaccination (Fig. 3b). All of the plasma samples from the COVID-19 vaccine recipients who experiencing Delta breakthrough infections showed high FRNT 50 values against the Delta variant (Fig. 3c) We recently evaluated the therapeutic effect of FDA-approved mAbs against a BA.1 variant in hamsters 37 .
Our data suggest that certain mAbs may lose e cacy against this variant. We, therefore, asked whether therapeutic mAbs can inhibit infection of BA.2 variants in hamsters. As of February, 2022, the FDA has authorized the emergency use of four mAbs for the treatment and/or prevention of COVID-19: REGEN-COV, a combination of imdevimab (REGN10987) and casirivimab (REGN10933); Xevudy, which is sotrovimab (VIR-7831); Evusheld (AZD7442), a combination of tixagevimab (COV2-2196 or AZD8955) and cilgavimab (COV2-2130 or AZD1061); and bebtelovimab (LY-CoV1404). We tested REGN10987/REGN10933, S309 (the precursor of sotrovimab), and COV2-2196/COV2-2130 for their therapeutic e cacy against BA.2. We synthesized these mAbs according to publicly available sequences without modi cations in their Fc regions, as described previously 14,37 . Syrian hamsters were inoculated with 10 3 PFU of CoV-2/UT-HP095-1N/Human/2020/Tokyo (D614G; HP095) or BA.2 (NCD1288), and one day later were injected intraperitoneally with S309 (5 mg/kg), the REGN10987/REGN10933 combination (2.5 mg/kg each), or the COV2-2196/COV2-2130 combination (2.5 mg/kg each) (Fig. 4a). A mAb speci c to the hemagglutinin of in uenza B virus was used as a control. Sera were also collected at this timepoint and tested in an ELISA for RBD-speci c IgG antibodies, which con rmed successful antibody transfer. Similar to our previous experiment 37 , for the D614G (HP095)-infected groups, treatment with S309, REGN10987/REGN10933, or COV2-2196/COV2-2130 markedly reduced virus titers in the lungs compared to those treated with the control mAb (Fig. 4b). For the BA.2 (NCD1288)-infected groups, COV2-2196/COV2-2130 treatment suppressed virus infection in the lungs of the animals [mean reduction in viral titer = 2.9 log 10 (PFU/g)] (Fig.   4c), similar to our previous ndings with BA.1 (NC928) 37 . In addition, S309 and REGN10987/REGN10933, which we previously showed were not effective against BA.1, reduced lung virus titers [mean reduction in viral titer = 2.7 and 2.2 log 10 (PFU/g), respectively], although the difference was not statistically signi cant between the REGN10987/REGN10933-and control mAb-treated groups. A recent study showed that the neutralizing activity of S309 against BA.2 is lower than that against BA.1 38 . The disparity between the in vitro and in vivo ndings may be due in part to the attenuated infectivity (~100fold lower levels) of BA.2 compared to BA.1 in hamster lungs (Fig. 2c). None of the mAbs we tested affected the virus titers in the nasal turbinates of the animals. These results suggest that REGN10987/REGN10933, COV2-2196/COV2-2130, and S309 can restrict viral replication in the lungs of hamsters infected with BA.2 when these mAbs are administrated therapeutically.
Effects of antiviral compounds on the replication of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron/BA.2 variants.
Molnupiravir, an inhibitor of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of SARS-CoV-2, and nirmatrelvir 39 , an inhibitor of the main protease (also called 3CLpro) of SARS-CoV-2, have been authorized for emergency use by the FDA to treat COVID-19. In addition, S-217622, another inhibitor of 3CLpro, is currently in clinical trials 37,40 . We assessed the therapeutic e cacy of these compounds in hamsters infected with BA.  (Fig. 4d). These dosages were selected based on previous studies in mice or hamsters 37,41,42 . Although no differences in viral titers in the nasal turbinates were detected between the animals treated with molnupiravir or nirmatrelvir and those treated with methylcellulose (control) at 4 dpi, treatment with S-217622 signi cantly reduced the virus titers in the nasal turbinates at 4 dpi. Moreover, all of the compounds tested considerably reduced the lung virus titers; no infectious virus was recovered at 4 dpi from the lungs of animals treated with molnupiravir, nirmatrelvir, or S-217622 (Fig. 4e). Our data suggest that the three antiviral compounds tested effectively inhibit BA.2 replication in the lower respiratory tract of hamsters. In addition, animals treated with S-217622 showed reduced infection in the upper respiratory tract, consistent with a previous study 37 .

Discussion
Here we found that the Omicron sublineage BA.2 variant of SARS-CoV-2 is less pathogenic in rodent models than prior SARS-CoV-2 variants, as has been reported for Omicron sublineage BA.1 variants 6-8 . We observed that a BA.2 variant was limited in its infectivity in the lungs of mice and hamsters compared to previous variants. Moreover, infection with BA.2 induced a limited pro-in ammatory cytokine/chemokine response in mouse lungs. Importantly, histopathological examination revealed that viral RNA and antigen were rarely detected in the alveoli of mice and hamsters after infection with BA.2. Thus, the limited infectivity of the BA.2 variant in the lung might contribute to lower disease severity in animal models. Further investigation is required to determine whether BA.2 variants can replicate e ciently and equivalently in human alveolar epithelial cells.
Our study suggests that the pathogenicity and replicative ability of the BA.2 variant is comparable to that of BA.1 variants in animal models. In contrast, a recent study showed that a recombinant, chimeric SARS-CoV-2 possessing the BA.2 S gene in the background of an ancestral SARS-CoV-2 strain is more pathogenic than a recombinant virus bearing the BA.1 S gene in the same background 3 , suggesting that the differences in the BA.1 and BA.2 S genes are responsible for the difference in pathogenicity between these chimeric viruses; based on these data, the authors concluded that BA.2 is more pathogenic than BA.1. However, in natural isolates, the genomes of BA.1 and BA2 also differ at locations other than the S gene, and these differences could have epistatic or independent effects that offset differences in pathogenic potential of the S gene 43 .
All experiments with SARS-CoV-2 were performed in enhanced biosafety level 3 (BSL3) containment laboratories at the University of Tokyo and the National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Japan, which are For co-infection studies, BA.1 (NC928) and BA.2 (NCD1288) were mixed at an equal ratio on the basis of their titers, and the virus mixture (total 2 x 10 3 PFU) was inoculated into hamsters. The animals were euthanized and nasal turbinates and lungs were collected at 4 dpi.
The K18-hACE2 transgenic hamster line (line M51; the same line as our previous study 6 ) was developed with a piggyBac-mediated transgenic approach, in which the K18-hACE2 cassette from the pK18-hACE2 plasmid was transferred into a piggyBac vector, pmhyGENIE-356, for pronuclear injection. hACE2 transgenic hamsters will be described in detail elsewhere 31 . Male K18-hACE2 transgenic hamsters were intranasally inoculated with 10 3 PFU of D614G (HP-095) or Omicron/BA.2 (NCD1288) in 30 µL. Body weight and survival were monitored daily, and nasal turbinates and lungs were collected at 3 and 5 dpi for virological analysis.
Experimental infection of mice.
Twelve-week-old female K18-hACE2 mice were inoculated via the intranasal route with 10 5 PFU (in 50 μL) of BA.2 (NCD1288) or WA1/2020 D614G; At 3 dpi, the animals were euthanized and lungs were collected. The virus titers in the nasal turbinates and lungs were determined by plaque assays on VeroE6/TMPRSS2-hACE cells. To measure viral RNA levels, nasal washes were collected in 0.5 mL of PBS, and tissues were weighed and homogenized with zirconia beads in a MagNA Lyser instrument (Roche Life Science) in 1 mL of DMEM supplemented with 2% FBS. Tissue homogenates were clari ed by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 5 min and stored at -80 ℃. Viral RNA from homogenized tissues or nasal washes was isolated by using the MagMAX Viral RNA Isolation Kit (ThermoFisher) and measured by TaqMan one-step quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) on an ABI 7500 Fast Instrument.
Copies of SARS-CoV-2 N gene RNA in samples were determined by using a previously published assay 48 . Brie y, a TaqMan assay was designed to target a highly conserved region of the N gene (Forward primer: Respiratory parameters were measured by using a whole-body plethysmography system (PrimeBioscience) according to the manufacturer's instructions. In brief, hamsters were placed in the unrestrained plethysmography chambers and allowed to acclimatize for 1 min before data were acquired over a 3-min period by using FinePointe software. Mice were placed in the unrestrained plethysmography chambers and allowed to acclimatize for 5 min before data were acquired over a 5-min period by using After scanning, the lung images were reconstructed by using the CosmoScan Database software of the micro-CT (Rigaku Corporation, Japan) and analyzed by using the manufacturer-supplied software.
A CT severity score, adapted from a human scoring system, was used to grade the severity of the lung abnormalities 49 . Each lung lobe was analyzed for degree of involvement and scored from 0-4 depending on the severity: 0 (none, 0%), 1 (minimal, 1%-25%), 2 (mild, 26%-50%), 3 (moderate, 51%-75%), or 4 (severe, 76%-100%). Scores for the ve lung lobes were summed to obtain a total severity score of 0-20, re ecting the severity of abnormalities across the ve groups. Images were anonymized and randomized; the scorer was blinded to the group allocation. Pathology.
Excised animal tissues were xed in 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS, and processed for para n embedding. The para n blocks were cut into 3-µm-thick sections and mounted on silane-coated glass slides for histopathological examination. To detect SARS-CoV-2 RNA, in situ hybridization was performed using an RNA scope 2.5 HD Red Detection kit (Advanced Cell Diagnostics, Newark, California) with an antisense probe targeting the nucleocapsid gene of SARS-CoV-2 (Advanced Cell Diagnostics) as previously described 6 . Tissue sections were also processed for immunohistochemical staining with a rabbit polyclonal antibody for SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein (ProSpec; ANT  Evaluation of therapeutic e cacy of mAbs and antiviral compounds in Syrian hamsters. Five-to six-week-old male Syrian hamsters (Japan SLC Inc., Shizuoka, Japan) were used in this study. For the evaluation of mAb e cacy in hamsters, under iso urane anesthesia, ve hamsters per group were inoculated intranasally with 10 3 PFU (in 30 μL) of BA.2 (NCD1288) or D614G (HP095). Twenty-four hours after infection, the hamsters were injected intraperitoneally with 1 ml of a mAb preparation (5 mg/kg). The animals were euthanized at 4 dpi, and the virus titers in the nasal turbinates and lungs were determined by plaque assays on VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells.
For the evaluation of antiviral compound e cacy in hamsters, under iso urane anesthesia, four hamsters per group were inoculated intranasally with 10 3 PFU (in 30 μL) of BA.2 (NCD1288). At 24 h after inoculation, hamsters were treated with the following antiviral compounds: (1) molnupiravir, 500 mg/kg (in 1 ml) administered orally twice daily; (2) nirmatrelvir, 1,000 mg/kg (in 1 ml) administered orally twice daily; (3) S-217622, 60 mg/kg (in 1 ml) administered orally twice daily; or (4) methylcellulose (1 ml) as a control for oral treatment. The animals were euthanized at 4 dpi, and the virus titers in the nasal turbinates and lungs were determined by plaque assays on VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells.
ELISAs were performed as previously reported 53

Focus reduction neutralization test (FRNT)
Neutralization activities of SARS-CoV-2 were determined by using an FRNT as previously described 14  Statistical analysis.
GraphPad Prism software was used to analyze all of the data. Statistical analysis included unpaired t tests, Mann-Whitney tests, Log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test and ANOVA with multiple corrections post-test.
Differences among groups were considered signi cant for P values < 0.05.
Data availability.
All data supporting the ndings of this study are available within the paper and from the corresponding author upon request. There are no restrictions to obtaining access to the primary data.
Code availability.
No code was used in the course of the data acquisition or analysis.
All reagents described in this paper are available through Material Transfer Agreements.   One day after infection, hamsters were treated with: 500 mg/kg molnupiravir, 1000 mg/kg nirmatrelvir, or 60 mg/kg S-217622 orally twice daily for 3 days. Methylcellulose served as a control for oral treatment.