Are Entrepreneurs Born or Made? A Look at Entrepreneurial Marketing Education Within Vocational High School

Manuscript Type: Research ArticleResearch Aims: The research studies the contextual stimuli (business knowledge and environment) toward entrepreneurial self-efficacy and locus of control that influence entrepreneurial intention.Design/methodology/approach: The survey involved vocational high school students in Mataram, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia, and collected 101 responses. The research applies a quantitative method of 2-steps Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM).Research Findings: Results confirms that business knowledge influences entrepreneurial intention mediated by entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Environment influences entrepreneurial intention mediated by locus of control only if students participate in entrepreneurial marketing education.Theoretical Contribution/Originality: The findings contributed to entrepreneurship literature by showing the role of entrepreneurial marketing education in enhancing student’s locus of control, which enables student’s environment to determine entrepreneurial intention.Managerial Implications in the Southeast Asian context: Research highlights important, yet, less discussed context regarding young-age entrepreneurial intention in vocational high school level. Research also demonstrates the significance of integrating entrepreneurial marketing education into school’s curriculum or supplementary curriculum. Research limitations and implications: This study is limited to vocational high school student context. Research on a more mature respondent context may produce different result


INTRODUCTION
Entrepreneurship in Indonesia is strategic, yet evidently deserves closer attention. The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute ranked Indonesia 75 out of 137 countries in terms of Global Entrepreneurship Index in 2019 (Ács et al., 2020).
For a country with a GDP of more than 1 trillion Dollars in year 2019 (The World Bank Group, 2021), this position is far from being impressive.
One possible way to improve the quality of entrepreneurship in Indonesia is by developing an entrepreneurship-oriented curriculum in the early education stage, such as vocational high school.
There is an increasing attention to deliver early entrepreneurial education for students, with the aim to teach ways for recognizing opportunities as well as to develop personal and social skills needed in professional life (Garrido-Yserte et al., 2019). It is also argued that the early stage of entrepreneurshiporiented education will help shape students ' stronger entrepreneurial spirits or attitudes (Hassi, 2016) and serve as a preparation phase for future new venture establishment (Roxas, 2014).
Several past empirical evidences support this claim.
Research by Elert, Andersson, and Wennberg (2015) concluded that early entrepreneurship education in Sweden increases the propensity that an individual will engage in entrepreneurship field in the future.
Study by Ni and Ye (2018) correspondingly discovered that the entrepreneurial education at secondary vocational school students in China increases student's entrepreneurial intention.
Similarly, a more recent study Rina et al. (2019) revealed that exposing students to entrepreneurial education will help cultivate necessary entrepreneurial behaviors and understanding.
Successful entrepreneurs rely on entrepreneurial attitudes such as creativity, innovation, courage to take risks, and the ability to think out of the box. However, in reality, Indonesian students do not appear to fully demonstrate these attitudes.
An example of this case is found in this study.
Despite the potential opportunity for cultural entrepreneurship in Mataram, Nusa Tenggara Barat Widyanto et al., 2019), students prefer doing culinary business because its perceived low-risk of failure, the existence of a clear market share, and relatively close proximity to students. The interview session with students also revealed that students choose culinary field because it is related to their daily lives, and quite easy to implement.
This finding caused concern as the tendency to seek convenience, to avoid risks, and inability to seek new innovation may hinder the potential for being entrepreneur.
Students' fears of failure or product failure can be addressed in several ways. Anggie and Haryanto (2011) state that consumer purchase decision can be improved through "word of mouth" which can be facilitated by the internet.
Students only need to optimize marketing strategies by increasing the intensity of word of mouth using online channels.
Indeed, it is not easy to predict the future market. However, a study by Rita et al., (2018) on strategies for entrepreneurs, especially small businesses, to anticipate the future market highlighted that an early entrepreneurial education may help develop the ability for future market prediction.
In terms of education intervention, studies by Santosa (2017;2018)

Entrepreneurial Intention
Intention can be defined as a person's persistent tendency to feel attracted to a certain field and feel happy in various activities related to that field (Winkel, 2004). With regards to entrepreneurial intention, Moriano et al. (2012, pg.165), drawing from earlier studies, e.g. Bird (1988) and Krueger & Carsrud (1993), define entrepreneurial intention as the cognizant state of mind that comes before action and directs attention toward an entrepreneurial purpose.
Entrepreneurial intention leads to entrepreneurial action (Karabulut, 2016); and is reflected in the desire, interest, and willingness to work hard or have a strong will without feeling afraid of the risks that will occur, and strong will to learn from failure (Fu'adi & Eko, 2009 (Nursito & Nugroho, 2013). Becoming an entrepreneur requires careful and courageous business planning (Indoworo, 2016). As such, sufficient business knowledge will help an entrepreneur to excel in his or her work.
Moreover, literature suggests that business knowledge is also associated with the trigger for entrepreneurial intention. Study by Samydevan et al. (2015) proved that business knowledge received by students encourages entrepreneurial interest and a decrease in unemployment among undergraduate students. A longitudinal study by Roxas (2014) similarly concludes that students with knowledge about the multi-functional and multi-faceted process of entrepreneurship, developed higher level of entrepreneurial intention, possibly because knowledge modifies the state of mind and increase the self-confidence to take entrepreneurial pathways.
This paper, therefore, argues that acquiring business knowledge will lead to higher interest in entrepreneurship.
Business knowledge is also known to develop selfefficacy (Pihie & Bagheri, 2013), and has significant effect on self-efficacy (Oyugi, 2011). Self-Efficacy Theory postulates a person's belief based on motivation, psychology and action can successfully carry out a desired behavior in achieving a result (Farrukh et al., 2017). Wulandari (2013) correspondingly mentions that self-efficacy is important in developing interest in carrying out certain tasks.
Past researches also suggested that entrepreneurial knowledge is a predictive variable for self-efficacy.
Equipping the students with entrepreneurial knowledge through entrepreneurship education presented opportunity to repetitively learn and participate in entrepreneurial tasks such as ideapitching, market analysis, and thus develop confidence to perform such entrepreneurial task in the future (Shinnar et al., 2014;Puni et al., 2018).  (Strauser et al., 2002).
There are two domains of locus of control, internal and external (Rotter, 1966). Individual who believes that the life event is contingent upon his own behavior displays the internal locus of control; contrary, individual with external locus of control is predisposed to believe that the events in life is the result of luck, chance, or fate (Rotter, 1966). It also appears that although considered as personal trait, internal locus of control may be influenced by entrepreneurial education (Hansemark, 1998;Mueller & Thomas, 2001). The classic theory of entrepreneurship mentions that fundamentally, entrepreneurship is all about doing marketing through its initial characteristic "new generic product-markets rather than refining the marketing process in well-developed and relatively well-known product-markets" (Murray, 1981

Research Methods
This research is categorized as a comparative quantitative research. Sugiyono (2014) Table 1 as follows.

Respondent Profile
The 101  which the construct size is measured, as can be observed from the Fornell-Lacker Criterion in Table   2.  (Chin, 1998;Afthanorhan, 2014 (Afthanorhan, 2014). This condition is also fulfilled by all latent variables in this study, either with all respondents, the respondents with entrepreneurial marketing education treatment, and those without entrepreneurial marketing education treatment.

Structural Model Test
After the measurement model test, the inner model test can be carried out (Henseler et al., 2009;Chin, 1998). To estimate the path in the structural model, it must be evaluated in terms of sign (direction), magnitude, and significance (Henseler et al., 2009).
Then, for the results of p-value to see whether the path under study has significance or not by using a significance value < 0.05 (Hair et al., 2016).

Respondent
The structural model test with all respondents in Thus, all hypotheses in this study are supported.
The summary of hypothesis testing (using pvalue) is presented in Table 3.  According to Gilmore et al. (2020), the main goal of entrepreneurial marketing education is to develop the entrepreneurs who demonstrate the entrepreneurial marketing seven dimensions, in this case refer to the suggestion by Astuti and Balqiah (2020). This study shows that developing these dimensions also builds the relationship between locus of control and entrepreneurial intention.
Integrating entrepreneurial marketing knowledge helps cultivate student's internal locus of control.
This circumstance is possibly related with entrepreneurial marketing as the idea that puts entrepreneur as the central actor in the marketing process and recognizes the importance of the entrepreneurial process in the creation of markets and artifact (Morrish, 2011, pg.110-111).

CONCLUSIONS
The result is different with the group that received entrepreneurial marketing education treatment. In this group, the locus of control has significant effect (p-value < 0.05) toward entrepreneurial intention.
Hence, there is an indirect association between environment and entrepreneurial intention mediated with locus of control as presented in Figure 3.