Ancient Crops Continuing for an Extended Period in Samtskhe-Javakheti Region of Georgia – a Review

Introduction Georgian territory (69.700 km2) covers both mountain ranges between 40o and 47o latitude east, and 42o and 44o longitude north. The Caucasus mountain system was formed ca. 28.5–23.8 million years ago as the result of a tectonic plate collision between the Anatolian and Arabian plate moving northward and the Eurasian plate. Georgia is a mountainous country made up of two separate mountain systems: the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range, lying northwest to east-southeast between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; and the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the greater range, at a distance averaging about 100 km south. It is made up of two separate mountain systems: the Greater Caucasus mountain range lying north-west to east-southeast between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; and the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the greater range, at a distance averaging about 100 kilometres south. Two thirds of the country is mountainous with an average height of 1200 m.a.s.l., with highest peaks of Mount Shkhara (5184 m.a.s.l.) at the Western Greater Caucasus and Mount DidiAbuli (3301 m.a.s.l.) in the Lesser Caucasus [1-3].


Introduction
Georgian territory (69.700 km 2 ) covers both mountain ranges between 40º and 47º latitude east, and 42º and 44º longitude north. The Caucasus mountain system was formed ca. 28.5-23.8 million years ago as the result of a tectonic plate collision between the Anatolian and Arabian plate moving northward and the Eurasian plate. Georgia is a mountainous country made up of two separate mountain systems: the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range, lying northwest to east-southeast between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; and the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the greater range, at a distance averaging about 100 km south. It is made up of two separate mountain systems: the Greater Caucasus mountain range lying north-west to east-southeast between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; and the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the greater range, at a distance averaging about 100 kilometres south. Two thirds of the country is mountainous with an average height of 1200 m.a.s.l., with highest peaks of Mount Shkhara The village's areas are oriented from 900 m to 2100 m and agrarian lands are now located in yard house. Many fruits are associated to wild tree and shrub species distributed in the high mountain (1250 -1800 m) and subalpine (1800-2300 m) forests in Meskheti. Samtskhe-Javakheti region has many ancient crop varieties used with very old farming traditions and owns linguistics of old civilization coinciding with early Neolithic epoch. The traditional landraces used by local people for thousands of years affected the health and human longevity of individuals in the Georgian population predicting adaptation to healthy food. Crop domestication is associated to existence of crop wild relatives (CWRs) on the territory of Georgia. There are many threats to these oldest of crops in the modern period [1,2].
The climate in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region is determined as continental. However, more recent survey is defining it as subtropical characterised by moderate precipitation, pronounced seasonal variations in climatic parameters, and a high level of solar radiation. According to these data region comprises two sub-climatic zones, mainly owing to the differing relief and orography. They are described as follows: The humid-subtropical mountainous climate with cold winter (<-5°C) and cool summer (<20°C), located in the Trialeti and Samsari Mountain ranges and Javakheti Plateau. The altitude, approximately 2500 metres, largely explains the lower temperatures in this region. The high-mountain profile of the area accounts for its near extreme climatic conditions. The estimated mean annual temperature for the area is 9.5°C, with an estimated average of 1.4°C in January and 19.5°C in July. Generally, the region experiences cold and occasionally snowy winters and long, but mild summers.
Precipitation increases westward with proximity to the Trialeti range. Mean annual precipitation in the transitional climate region is approximately 508 mm, and 654 mm at the Georgian-Turkish border. The majority of the precipitation falls between April and October, with May and June being considered the months with most rainfall (82 mm/month and 88 mm/ month, accordingly). The driest months of the year in these parts are December (32 mm/month) and January (30 mm/month). Precipitation data specific to the mountains and mountainous steppes near the Georgia-Turkey border are scarce. Wind speeds are reported with an estimated annual average of 5.4 m/s, although still predominantly northerly and north-westerly. However, speeds in excess of 12 m/s can occur for up to 50% of the year, with maximum wind speeds reaching as high as 30 m/s. The mean number of gale days (days in which wind speeds are approximately 17-20 m/s) for the Javakheti region is relatively low, compared to the Meskheti, at 21 days per annum. The last climatic zone is affected by both easterly and westerly winds, becoming increasingly strong in the high mountains (greater or equal to 15 m/s). Cultivated crops, including such important field crops in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region represents today part of one of the oldest historical province of Georgia named Tao-Klarjeti or Upper Kartli [1,2,3]. Archaeological data clearly show that Caucasus and namely Georgia were settled from prehistoric time and agriculture was developed from early Neolithic era in this region [4]. From crops were cultivated bread wheat and millet in lowlands and 'Dika' (Triticumturgidum subsp. carthlicum), emmer wheat, barley and rye.
The occupation of the territories leads to the changes of traditional agriculture. For example, the territory of South Georgian region named Tao-Klarjeti was occupied by Turkey in 1580 AD, when agriculture was substituted by cattle breeding, which caused abandonment of cultivated fields and their transformation into pastures [4]. According to old administrative documents after occupation of Georgian part by Turks, in former Georgian village Sviri in GurjistanVilayet in Turkish, local population was paying taxes by crops, such as wheat, barley, rye, millet, chickpea, lentil, flax, alfalfa, etc. [5]. During our expedition in Gurjistan Vilayet in Turkish in 2006, we did not find any of the old traditional field crops cultivated nowadays in the villages. The agriculture in this region is abandoned and substituted by cattle breeding. All vineyards are cut and remained grapes gone wild to make thicket at roadsides and at the edges of the forests. Some vegetables were grown in small house gardens, such as cabbage, sugar beet, carrot, cucumber, tomatoes, etc. However, seeds are bought in markets and there was no information on origin of the seed material, when they might be aboriginal varieties [3]. Some vegetables were grown in small house gardens, such as cabbage, sugar beet, carrot, cucumber, tomatoes, etc. However, seeds are bought in markets and there was no information on origin of the seed material and when they might be aboriginal varieties. According to Vavilov [6], the primary domestication in the fourth center of crop origin and diversity named as the Near East included the South Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran, and the Fertile Crescent. Local varieties, many of which are endemic species of Georgian ancient crops are known in this domesticated center. Especially, they are characterized by the introduction of the varieties of wheat, rye, oat, seed and forage legumes, herbs, fruits, and grapes for winemaking; 83 species all tolled [7]. The primary scientific argument of Vavilov (1992) on domestication of crops represents the idea that the centers of origin of cultivars should be characterized by high genetic and morphological variability of both wild and cultivated taxa.
About 525 names of autochthonous grapevine landraces known from Georgia show greatest genetic and morphological variability characterized by a wide range of color gamma and shapes of berries and pips [8]. The language of the Georgian people is not part of the Indo-European language and belongs to the proto-Georgian language group known as Kartveluri [9]. Moreover, the traditional landraces used by local people for thousands of years affected the health and human longevity of individuals in the population of Georgia country predicting adaptation to healthy food [10]. Georgian centenarians were reputed to have been over age 120 in 1959 and the percentage of males over age 70 was 0.9 % in 1959 and 1.07 % of women were over 70 [11]. This percentage of human longevity is diminished last time, when local population replaced ancient crops and agriculture is generally oriented on introduced cultivars from different countries [12]. The population has high ages in the villages which has the ancient crops with the healthy food in the high mountain areas of Samtskhe-Javakheti region.

Traditional field crops of Samtskhe-Javakheti region
Nowadays the following field crops are remained in Samtskhe-Javakheti region:   Usually, this combination of wheat taxa is associated with wild weed 'Makhobeli' Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Schrad.exRoem & Schult (Caprifoliaceae) occurring most often in such wheat fields ( Figure 3). Each species of aboriginal wheat was represented by several varieties. Most known of them are varieties of bread wheat -''DolisPuri''. Two varieties were very gratifying [14] one of them with red spikes called Red Bread Wheat of Meskheti (T. aestivumvar. ferrugineum). Principal problems of agriculture in arid regions remained until now. Bread wheat (T. aestivum var. erythrospermum) was sown in Javakheti in the past. One local variety of T. turgidum subsp. Carthlicum 'Dika' cultivated almost in all villages of Meskheti is called Makhnia Bread, which takes onto an idea that it might be derived from T. aestivum var. macha and it is other crop and it is degraded from 1950s years [5].

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'Dika' as another variety was Tofbashi, which in Turkish language means "bigspiklet wheat". The local Meskhetian variety of 'Dika' has straight spike with awn. The spike of Tofbashi, however, is quadrate and round and has big grains from all sides i.e. are not flatted [5]. Emmer wheat -T. dicoccum Schrank ex Schübl. was growing in Tsalka district; Javakheti and Meskhetiuntil the end of XIX and early XX centuries. It was mainly cultivated in high mountain regions. It was spring corn. The emmer wheat cultivated in Meskheti has double grains and local Moslem population was called it 'Kabgaja'. T. turgidum subsp. durum wheat was distributed in Meskheti from ancient time. The fields of this species were distributed from 500 to 1000 m a.s.l. T.turgidum subsp. carthlicum substituted this wheat at more height elevations. The local name of durum wheat was 'Shavfkha' and the population was called as 'Kara Kilchig'.
Nowadays, there is only bread wheat to be cultivated in the region. Mainly, there are introduced varieties -local Georgian 'Ufkho.1', American variety -Kopper, Turkish -Sultan, Georgian breed -'Vardzia'. The local population often has now idea on the origin and character of variety as they are purchasing the seeds on the market without any instructions and information. 'Dika' fields have been found in v. Rustavi, Aspindza district [3]. Javakhian'Dika' is cultivated in Javakheti till today. It represents mixture of bread wheat and 'Ipkli' [15].

Barley -Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae):
It was the second important crop in Samtskhe-Javakheti after wheat [5] and main crop in high-mountainous Javakheti. Until 1970s, here was growing two varieties of barley -white and black, which differ by form, one has flat and another round spikes. According to old administrative documents v. Ptena located on arid land was paying taxes by barley amounted in 1000 pitcher, while wheat was paying only as 500 pitchers from the same village. Barley was shown on both irrigated and non-irrigated lands [5]. It was mixed with 'Dika' and such mixed filed was called 'Kerdika field' and corn as 'Kerdika'. Nowadays, a foreign variety of barley is widely cultivated in Samtskhe-Javakheti. Two-row summer barley was cultivated mainly in high mountain regions.

Rye -Secale cereale L. (Poaceae):
It is one more grain crop distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti. It was very competitive with wheat and barley in high-mountainous regions. Nowadays, its field is found in v. Chunchkha in ground of peasant Zurab Beridze [14]. The name and origin of the variety is unknown. The naturalization of rye and its occurrence in the wheat fields as weed is normal in both Meskheti and Javakheti regions. In mountains, it occupied abandoned wheat fields as weed. It is supposed that weedy form might be another species of rye -S. segetale [Zhuk.] Roshev., which is usually mixed with cultivated rye. At the same time the mountainous regions of Javakheti is known as area of distribution of two wild species S. anatolicum Boiss. and S. montanum Guss., which might be entering corn fields as weedy species. The environmental conditions in the region are very good for distribution and cultivation of rye [16].
The Oat -Avena sativa L. (Poaceae): Nowadays, it occupies very small area among crop fields in Samtskhe-Javakheti. The origin of seed material is unknown. The local population is purchasing the seeds in the market and receives no information or instructions on its origin [17].

Grapevines -Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae): Cultivated grapevines are Georgian varieties -'Saperavi,' 'Rkatsiteli,' 'Tavkveri,' 'Chvitiluri,' 'Kachichi', 'Shonuri,' and 'Uchakhardani'
are genetically related to wild grape species-V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris populations located in gorges of River Mtkvari, R. Lekhura, and R. Alazani [1]. One of the oldest Georgian grape cultivar 'Krikina' which is morphologically nearly identical to wild grapevine, shows the genetic similarity to the most ancient Georgian cultivars 'MeskhuriShavi' cultivated on Meskhetian terraces. In the past, the wild grape providing an important initial impulse to the domestication of grapevine was abundant in the Minor and Greater Caucasus mountain regions. One crop 'Karzameti' is in castle near boundary to Turkey at 1450 m in the Akhaltsikhe district.

Pea -Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae):
It is grown in house gardens in small amounts as food legume till today. More often it is mixed as weed in the fields with different grain crops -barley, rye. It is used as forage and for hay, especially in Javakheti.

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Common vetch -Vicia sativa L. (Fabaceae): It is used as forage and for hay. It was distributed in Javakheti.

Bitter vetch -Vicia ervilia (L.)Willd (Fabaceae):
It is distributed in Meskheti and Javakheti. There are cultivated and wild forms of this species. It is used as forage and for soil enrichment with nitrogen.
Flax -Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae): Flax was one of the oldest and very important filed crops in Meskheti and until recently, flax was cultivated only in Javakheti [2]. According to literature data [3] there were three different varieties -flat, Tsitsmata and black flax. Flat flax was cultivated in bigger amount than two others. Until recently, flax was cultivated in Javakheti, where flax seeds were used to obtain pharmacologically pure oil used for medicinal purpose. Until the 1970s, it was widespread in Imereti, but at present, Chinese shallot -A. cepa var. aggregatum G. Don has completely supplanted Welsh onion. Radish -Raphanus sativus, is grown in lower elevations in gardens and is cultivated by farmers for the market. Herbs are represented by numerous species: parsley, coriander, tarragon, sweet basil, savory, garden cress pepper weed, dill, fennel, celery, garden lettuce, peppermint. Herbs are cultivated in small sections of house gardens even in urban settlements. Sometimes, people have herbs indoors in pots. Fruits are valuable cultivars in Georgia. Wild and cultivated fruit crops reveal high species and genetic diversity in Georgia and represent rich material for future breeding activities. Many fruits have wild relatives representing the same species and direct ancestors of local cultivars. Some introduced crops have become very popular and widespread. They are introduced from different countries. Such crops as cucumber (Cucumissativus), found in all regions of Georgia since medieval times, eggplant (Solanummelongena), marigold (Tagetespatula), used in almost all traditional meals; and black pepper (Piper nigrum) were introduced from India. Watermelon (Citrulluslanatus) from South Africa was cultivated in the Caucasus since medieval times. Maize (Zea mays), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), tomato (Solanumlycopersicum), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), pepper (Capsicum annuum), and potato (Solanum tuberosum) were introduced to Georgia from the Americas at about the same time as in Europe [4].
Tea (Camellia sinensis) and citrus fruits (Citrus limon, Citrus reticulata, Citrus sinensis) came from China in the 1830s. Nicotianarustica -'tutuni' in Georgian has been cultivated for a long time and is found in the most regions, including high mountain areas, of Georgia. Samthkhe-Javakheti region has become a secondary center of diversity for most of these crops. Ancient crops of bean, maize, tomato, and cucumber can be found on height from 900 -1300 m a.s.l. The potato is in Height Mountains to 2160 m of this region. Agriculture has many areas in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.

Place and Time of Origin of Cultivated Plants
It is of interest that according to many authors [1,18] in spite of high plant diversity in tropical and warm temperate lowland areas, major food crops have come mainly from high mountain valleys, isolated from each other to a large extent and with a very great habitat range. Here people made selections of wheat, barley, oat, rye, potatoes and maize which were eventually cultivated. It is suggested that [19,20] the high mountain areas were suitable for cereal domestication because they are seasonal in climate, with a wide range of temperature and rainfall due to differences of altitude. Here were closed ecological systems of grasses and legumes where mutant forms could thrive and become established.
Here also were isolated human communities exerting their selection pressures for larger seed size, adaptation to drought, humidity and extremes of climate. These were ideal conditions for mutations and selections, especially for large seed size. Georgia and particularly the Samtskhe-Javakheti region is mountainous area. It comprises Shavsheti, Erusheti, Adjara-Imereti, Trialeti, Chobareti, Abul-Samsari ranges and Javakheti plateau. It is part of the old world where domestication of crops occurred. It is often considered as part of Near East was many field crops was domesticated. The first sign of cereal domestication is the evidence that ears of cultivated cereal crops became less brittle in difference with their wild relatives characterized with shattering of spikes into spike lets upon maturity, which is essential for seed dispersal [21]. It is generally assumed that most Triticeae crops have been domesticated from their wild relatives by selection of non-shattering individuals which sporadically appear in wild populations as rare mutants [22].

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A hypothesis was proposed that rye and wheat forms with varying ear fragility may have arisen as a result of interspecific hybridization processes between different wild species [21]. The Neolithic (= food-producing) agricultural development in West Asia depended primarily on the cultivation and subsequent domestication of three species: (1) einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum) domesticated from wild progenitor T. boeoticum, (2) emmer wheat (T. dicoccum) domesticated from T. dicoccoides, and (3) two-row barley (Hordeumvulgare subsp. disticum) from H. spontaneum. The domestication is a sustained multigenerational relationship in which one group with the unconscious selection by the early farmer for heads with a non-shattering rachis. The wild mode of seed dispersal gradually disappeared, the wild-type germination of seeds on the ground was lost, and there was an increase in kernel size and yield potential. The plants which evolved with these traits subsequently lost their ability to survive in the wild.
It is assumed that the domestication of ancient cereals such as tetraploid wheat and barley seem to have originated in the hilly country surrounding the Syrian-Mesopotamian Plains [23] between 10,000 and 8000 BP [24]. West Asia, and particularly Syria, has not only been a cradle of human civilization but also includes areas where domestication of wild plants may have first occurred [24]. By 7000 BP, both wheat and barley had spread to the Harsuna settlements of northern Iraq. The region includes two of the most important Vavilovian centers origins of food crops -the Near East and the Mediterranean. These two regions fall within the pattern of global genetic diversity also described by [23]. Findings of free-threshing hexaploid wheat are known in archaeological sites in Anatolia between 6000 and 7000 BC [25].
Agriculture appears in South Caucasus in the 6th millennium [26]. The ancient archeological findings of cereal grains in Georgia are known from Trialeti and Samegrelo (Dikha-Gudzuba, Zugdidi distr.) from Neolith at the end of 3rd millennium and in 2nd millennium [13]. Very recent studies on einkorn wheat domestication using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) show that T. boeoticum was domesticated in southeast Turkey in the Karacadag Mountains close to Diyarbakir [27]. The Samtskhe-Javakheti region is located between the Trialeti range and this place in Turkey and might be considered as area where cultivation of cereals occurred in very early historical to the time period.

Conclusion
The flora of the Caucasus region includes many ancient species, and many forms are still dominant or co-dominant in the hotspot's plant communities. The region is harbors a remarkable concentration of economically important plants, particularly wild crop relatives such as wheat, rye and barley, as well as grape, legumes and technical plants like flax. The most studied and detailed by archeology and history is the Near East. Inspite of the fact that there are many cases of extinctions of landraces in Georgia, loss of a whole species. Monitoring in the area of Georgia needs report on arable lands ingredients or archeological excavations. The term genetic erosion is concerned to crop plants, and it will need contributions of scientific results to confirm the extinction and threats for landraces and local cultivars. It was basically grape, wheat, and barley agriculture although other crops like common millet, Italian millet, pea, lentil, chickpea, faba bean, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the landraces origin and use in the historically remnant country as Georgia.
The agriculture of the Caucasus region includes many ancient crops, and many forms are still dominant in the crop communities. The Samtskhe-Javakheti region also harbors a remarkable concentration of economically important crops such as wheat, rye and barley, as well as grape, legumes and technical plants like flax. The most studied and detailed by archeology and history is the Near East. The remaining of the ancient crops is in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region and they are used as healthy foods for the local population. The ancient crops are not used in the businesses and it has a good data for the need contribution of scientific results for use healthy food as for ancient crops and local cultivars.