The Roles and Performance of Professional Driving Instructors in Novice Driver Education

This review article aimed to analyse existing literature regarding the roles and performance of professional driving instructors (PDIs) in novice driver education (DE). A systematic classification scheme was adopted to analyse identified articles to determine the study context of PDIs in novice DE, the competency level of PDIs in relation to experienced and learner drivers and the contributions of PDIs to the novice driver learning process. A total of 14 original research articles were identified, with no systematic reviews or meta-analyses available. Overall, all of the articles were found to be inadequate in providing an in-depth understanding of the roles and performance of PDIs in novice DE. There is an urgent need to improve current understanding of the roles of PDIs in novice DE and to work towards an internationally recognised PDI management approach.


D
riving is an instrumental activity of daily living; however, it can be extremely dangerous as even a minor mistake can result in complicated and life-threatening injuries or death. 1,2According to the World Health Organisation, the number of global road traffic fatalities exceeded one million in recent years, with another 20-50 million people either injured or incapacitated due to road traffic accidents. 2In particular, young and novice drivers constitute the highest proportion of road traffic accident victims. 2,3In acknowledgement of this problem, the United Nations has instituted a Decade of Action for Road Safety framework, with the aim of reducing worldwide road traffic fatalities by 2020. 2,4,5his framework highlights graduated driver licensing (GDL) as an activity that strengthens the process of licensing road users, reflecting the importance of maintaining procedures to ensure that only effective drivers enter the road system. 2,6The pre-licence learning-to-drive phase is important for new drivers to overcome issues associated with inexperience, gain exposure to road traffic rules, train their basic manoeuvring and vehicle handling skills and learn to recognise hazards. 7In GDL, for example, additional curfew restrictions can also address immaturity issues in novice drivers and serve to eliminate external influences which can lead to road traffic accidents. 6very country has a different set of regulations for driver licensing, at either the national or regional level, as well as its own unique philosophy and approach to driving. 7,8For example, differences exist in the minimum age permitted to start the licensing process; the training approach (including the number of required training hours and final assessment type); and various restrictions prior to full licensing. 7,9he GDL licensing process is divided into learner, intermediate/provisional and full license stages. 6In the first stage, learner drivers (LDs) must obtain practical driving experience in a low-risk environment with guidance from a more experienced driver. 6In the intermediate stage, LDs are subject to restrictions on nighttime driving, driving with passengers and alcohol consumption.Only after passing these two stages do LDs progress to full licensure. 6In countries that do not utilise a GDL system, these first two phases are usually combined, resulting in only pre-and full license stages; LDs usually need to complete off-and on-road training activities, including classroom lessons, theory tests and on-track and on-road driving sessions before undergoing a practical driving test.In Malaysia, for example, the pre-licensing phase is similar to the GDL system with a two-year probationary status for new drivers; however, Malaysia neither refers to these two years as a GDL period nor follows the stricter GDL scheme implemented by other countries such as New Zealand, Australia, the USA or Canada. 6,10ithin the pre-licensing stage, the training process can either be informal or formal. 11With the formal approach, candidate drivers study a standardised driving curriculum and complete a certain number of training hours before taking a final test.These activities are usually handled by commercial driving schools with the involvement of professional driving instructors (PDIs) who work within an approved or accredited legislative scope of the government usually in a business or occupational framework (i.e. a driving school or institute). 10In contrast, the informal approach acknowledges the eligibility of parents, family members or other adults to act as driving trainers-as any method adopted to ensure the ability of LDs to drive and pass the test is considered valid-even though such instructors may be outside of the established driver education (DE) system.These so-called lay instructors are sometimes referred to as private instructors or supervisors. 12,13hey normally conduct informal training to help novice drivers meet the required number of supervised driving hours as part of a supervised behind-the-wheel practice scheme.For many novice drivers, the use of lay instructors is more affordable than enrolling in a commercial driving school. 13egardless of the system on which it is based, novice DE should focus on three elements: the goals of the education, the educational content and the process/test. 14Previous researchers have studied the goals for DE and their application in a licensing system. 15,16However, the approach to DE instruction is as critical as its content and assessment; central to the delivery of DE content is the PDI, sometimes also referred to as a DE instructor or approved driving instructor. 17,18Additionally, PDIs may be involved in the post-licensing stage, for example when drivers wish to upgrade their license class so as to operate heavy (i.e.lorries), recreational (i.e.all-terrain vehicles) or public transport (i.e.buses and taxis) vehicles.Qualified PDIs may also offer advanced courses that emphasise valueadded driving skills such as driving in hazardous or emergency situations, nocturnal or eco-driving and off-roading, occupational specialist training to drive hearses and limousines or introductory lessons to new crash avoidance or advanced braking technologies.Other post-licensing driver trainers include driving instructors either fully or partially in the service of private or government institutions (such as ambulatory services in hospitals) or occupational therapist driver assessors/certified driver rehabilitation specialists for patients recovering from certain illnesses. 1,19Figure 1 provides an overview of the various personnel involved in both pre-and post-licensure DE and training.
The roles and performance of the PDI in the novice DE environment are particularly important since the PDI remains with the LD from their first

Methods
This review was performed in January 2017.The search strategy comprised an initial background search of Google Scholar (Google, Googleplex, Mountain View, California, USA) followed by an investigation of systematic reviews/meta-analyses and original research articles included in scholarly databases [Figure 2].In the initial background search, there were 22,500 results for the keywords "driver training", 19,400 for "driver education", 9,360 for "driver licensing", 4,570 for "driving instructor" and 320 for "driver instructor".1][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] The subject population was often composed of older drivers, with the articles focusing on their fitness to drive.Critically, even if PDIs were involved in some articles, they were not the main subjects but were instead contributors, for instance in upholding the research design or its validity and reliability. 29Therefore, these articles were excluded from the final analysis.
Subsequently, the second and third steps of the review methodology involved searching scholarly databases for systematic reviews/meta-analyses and original research articles.All searches were performed using the keywords "driving instructor" and "driver instructor" and were limited to accessible databases such as ScienceDirect (Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands), MEDLINE ® (National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, USA), the Cochrane Library (Cochrane, London, England, UK), Inderscience Publishers (Geneva, Switzerland), the Wiley Online Library (John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA), Taylor & Francis Online (Milton Park, Oxfordshire, UK) and Emerald eJournals (Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, West Yorkshire, UK).The researchers' expert knowledge of the subject of DE contributed extensively to building the search mechanism and strategy; for example, as most articles on DE and driver licensing originate from the USA, Australia and Europe, searches were often focused on publications originating from these regions. 6,8,9or original research articles, a systematic classification scheme was adopted based on previous research published by Lage et al. and Hachicha et al.  and adapted by other researchers, including Oviedo-Trespalacios et al. [30][31][32] Accordingly, each original research article was examined using a systematic classification scheme to determine (1) the article's context with regards to PDIs in novice DE, including the research methodology, type of analysis and the PDI's position of involvement in the study; (2)  the competency of PDIs in comparison to other experienced or LDs; and (3) the contribution of PDIs to the learning process (i.e. the influence of the PDI on the novice driver's performance).In order to ensure quality, the scope of the review included only articles published between 1990-2016 in peer-reviewed journals.Grey literature was not considered suitable for analysis, although it was used to gain insights into the topic.Unlike medical research articles, which normally have extensive, descriptive titles that highlight the health issues covered, articles related to PDI at the novice driver level were found to have less explicit titles which required close scrutiny of the abstract, keywords and main text of the articles.

Specific sample of prospective PDIs
• Risky attitudes correlated negatively with emotional abilities.
• Adaptability and interpersonal abilities were described based on the global risk attitude index.
• The propensity to take risks was influenced by stress management and interpersonal components.

Comparative sample with EDs
• There were no differences in ratings of traffic rules by violators and non-violators.
• However, there were rating differences between PDIs and violators (i.e.violators rated speeding as being a less important factor leading to accidents, whereas driving in reverse and U-turn rules were deemed more important).
• PDIs were slightly better than EDs in predicting accidents based on violations.
PDIs and EDs did not differ significantly in their assessments of 'unwritten' traffic rules or judgements that particular traffic rules can facilitate road safety Study 2: To explore EDs' and PDIs' assessments of 'unwritten' driving rules to explain safe versus risky driving

Comparative sample with EDs
• There were some differences in judgments regarding 'unwritten' driving rules (i.e.PDIs tended to view driving behaviour negatively).
• No significant differences were detected between PDIs and EDs in judging 'unwritten' traffic rules, although some of the judgments were interesting (i.e.participants reported that signalling another driver about a police post facilitated road safety).
Boccara et al. 33 (2011) To examine the development of LDs' self-assessments compared to PDI assessments of LD performance

Comparative sample with LDs
• LD self-assessments and PDI ratings increased positively in relation to all aspects of the assessment scale as the training progressed.
• The LDs' and PDIs' ratings did not differ significantly between each of the three tested driving situations.
• Similar results were observed between male and female LDs at each stage of training.
• LDs' overestimation of their driving skills was mainly observed during step one, less so during steps two and three and never during step four.

LDs accurately assessed their driving skills as the training course progressed
Treffner et al. 39 (2002) Study 1: To examine whether deceleration and braking control were augmented by sensitivity to perceptual variable tau based on TTC

Comparative sample with EDs
• As hypothesised based on Lee's prediction, braking was initiated at a TTC of 5 seconds and tau-dot was maintained at approximately 0.5, irrespective of skill level. 44aining programmes should concentrate on increasing driver stability as a foundation to enhancing driver control while driving, thereby improving road safety Study 2:To measure supposed differences in driving behaviour between EDs and PDIs during a set of normal driving manoeuvres

Comparative sample with EDs
• PDIs had different cornering paths and emergency braking strategies; their ability to perform a high-speed swerve and perform effectively in the recovery task was higher as compared to EDs.
• PDIs applied greater bracing forces using the door and console and greater footrest forces during emergency braking as compared to EDs.
• PDIs more frequently braced themselves to counter g-forces when driving, indicating an active stabilisation strategy that boosted both postural stability and overall stability and consistency.
Zulhaidi M. Jawi, Baba M. Deros, Ahmad A. A. Rashid, Mohd H. M. Isa and Azmi Awang 9][40] Austers et al. found that PDIs and EDs did not differ in their judgement of 'unwritten' traffic rules, with PDIs only slightly better than LDs in predicting traffic violations as causes of accidents. 38Moreover, Treffner et al. reported that PDIs performed better than experienced drivers during a variety of everyday driving manoeuvres, particularly with regards to the application of braking and bracing strategies. 39While studies by Boccara et al. and Katila  et al. were generally focused on the learning process rather than determining the comparative performance of PDIs, the findings of these studies nevertheless suggested that there were skill-specific performance differences between PDIs and LDs; in other words, these two groups were equally competent in certain skills but not others. 33,40One potential explanation for this variation is that while some skills can be taught in In terms of assessing the contributions of PDIs to the learning process, Passmore et al. provided a qualitative assessment of PDIs' perspectives of coaching novice DEs. 17 Out of the seven themes which emerged from the analysis, several indicated that PDIs did not overly contribute to novice DE, particularly in stressing learner's acceptance of responsibility for their learning or helping learners to change their attitudes. 17nother study by Boccara et al. on the PDI-LD training process suggested that PDIs contributed to LD learning even though sometimes the instruction was not delivered according to recommended methods in the curriculum. 41n general, the findings of the literature review reaffirm that very little research has been published internationally with regard to PDI; moreover, the research available is highly dispersed and covers a wide range of subtopics. 16More exploration is needed to enrich academic understanding of PDIs' roles and performance and help road safety practitioners reshape or enhance novice DE programmes.In addition, such research would enable related government agencies to implement best practices and correctly position PDIs in the national DE training system.This may eventually lead to the development of an internationally recognised PDI management approach and assessment system.

Conclusion
This review aimed to assess existing literature on the roles and performance of PDIs in novice DE.Overall, the existing literature was insufficient to provide an in-depth understanding of the influential role of PDIs in DE.Furthermore, with regards to the competency and contribution to the novice driver learning process on the part of the PDI, most identified articles were very diverse and covered many different subtopics.Further research would contribute to a more developed understanding of the role and performance of PDIs; the results of such studies would be useful for future interventions, which might include the implementation of an internationally recognised PDI management approach as well as critical requirements for PDI certifications.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Overview of the roles of various personnel, particularly professional driving instructors, in both pre-and postlicensure driver education.
Zulhaidi M. Jawi, Baba M. Deros, Ahmad A. A. Rashid, Mohd H. M. Isa and Azmi Awang Review | e279 lesson until the final assessment, which usually takes the form of a practical driving test.While previous research has examined the responsibility involved in training novice drivers, few studies have focused on the specific contributions of PDIs.This review therefore aimed to analyse existing literature regarding the roles and performance of PDIs in novice DE.

Figure 2 :
Figure 2: Diagram illustrating the search strategy used to identify literature related to the roles and performance of professional driving instructors in novice driver education.PDI = professional driving instructor; DE = driver education.
For example, Molina et al. 's study focused on the delivery of DE curricula based on the Goals for Driver Education framework, while Rismark et al. and De Stefani et al. addressed language use during driving instruction and social interactions in DE.

and year of study
Zulhaidi M. Jawi, Baba M. Deros, Ahmad A. A. Rashid, Mohd H. M. Isa and Azmi Awang 27I = professional driving instructor; LD = learner driver; ADHD = attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ASD = autism spectrum disorder; EDs = experienced drivers.*Firstpublishedonline in July 2015.†Theresearcherscollected data on/from PDIs but placed very little emphasis on the results or discussions of the PDI sample as compared to the LD sample.‡Thesamesampleswere discussed in two separate articles.27Itshould be noted that the PDI and LD samples mentioned by Boccara et al. were discussed in two separate articles.

Table 2 :
27,[34][35][36][37]nd one of Boccara et al. 's studies. 27,34oreover, Roelofs et al., Arnau-Sabatés et al. and Lajunen et al. each focused on factors outside the Literature review of original research articles placing less emphasis on professional driving instructors' roles and performance in novice driver education27,[34][35][36][37] The Roles and Performance of Professional Driving Instructors in Novice Driver Education PDI = professional driving instructor; DE = driver education; LD = learner driver; ASD = autism spectrum disorder; ADHD = attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; DBQ = driver behaviour questionnaire.*First published online in July 2015.† The researchers collected data on/from PDIs but placed very little emphasis on the results or discussions of the PDI sample as compared to the LD sample.e282 | SQU Medical Journal, August 2017, Volume 17, Issue 3