Diet Controls Uranium Intake and Aggravates Health Hazards
Main Article Content
Abstract
Uranium (U) is ubiquitously abundant in the environment. Significant amounts of U are applied on agricultural soils with mineral phosphorus fertilizers; thus, entering the food chain. The daily intake of U with solid food varies only slightly. It is lowest with a mixed standard diet (1.3 µg/day U) and highest with a vegan diet (2.0 µg/day U). It is the U content of tap and mineral water which determines the total U intake (1.7 – 7.1 µg/day U). Next to U speciation and amount of U entering the human body, an oversupply with phosphorus, and a critical supply with calcium and iron may amplify negative health effects. Kidneys are the prime target of a high P intake and U toxicity. The additional daily phosphorus intake by food phosphates peaked to 1000 mg/day in the last 20 years. This may add on an average 1.2 µg/day U and worst case 11 µg/day U to the solid diet. Toxicological studies suggest that damages of kidneys can be expected when the U content is as low as 0.1-0.4 µg/g U. The study provides a comprehensive overview of potential health hazards caused by dietary uranium intake in relation to nutritional habits.
Keywords:
Calcium (Ca), drinking water, food phosphates, iron (Fe), phosphorus (P), uranium (U)
Article Details
How to Cite
HANEKLAUS, Silvia H. et al.
Diet Controls Uranium Intake and Aggravates Health Hazards.
Medical Research Archives, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 8, aug. 2021.
ISSN 2375-1924.
Available at: <https://esmed.org/MRA/mra/article/view/2484>. Date accessed: 18 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v9i8.2484.
Section
Review Articles
The Medical Research Archives grants authors the right to publish and reproduce the unrevised contribution in whole or in part at any time and in any form for any scholarly non-commercial purpose with the condition that all publications of the contribution include a full citation to the journal as published by the Medical Research Archives.
References
1. Kratz, S., F. Knappe J, Rogasik J, Schnug E. 2008. Uranium balances in agroecosystems. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 179- 189.
2. WHO. 2012. Uranium in drinking water, Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/118/Rev/1.
3. EPA. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Radionuclides 2000; 40CFR Part 141 (65FR 76708, Dec 7th 2000).
4. MTVO. 2006. Mineral- und Tafelwasser- Verordnung vom 1. August 1984, BGB1. I S. 1036, zuletzt geändert durch die Vierte Verordnung zur Änderung der Mineral- und Tafelwasser-Verordnung v. 1. 2006 Dezember 2006, BGB1. Bonn 11. Dezember, 2006. Teil 1 Nr. 56, 2762- 763. [online]
5. TrinkwV. Erste Verordnung zur Änderung der Trinkwasserverordnung vom 3. Mai 2011, Bundesgesetzblatt Jahrgang 2011 Teil 1 Nr. 21. Bonn: 11. November 2011, 748-774.
6. Knolle F. A contribution to occurrence and origin of uranium in German mineral and tap waters. Braunschweig, Germany; PhD thesis, Technical University 2008.
7. Schnug E, Birke M, Costa N, Knolle F, Fleckenstein J, Panten K, Lilienthal H, Haneklaus S. Uranium in German mineral and tap waters. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 91-110.
8. Royal Society.The Health hazards of depleted uranium munitions. Part I, London: The Royal Society, 2001.
9. Windmann H. A contribution to the risk assessment of uranium contamination in the food chain through phosphate containing fertilizers, feed and food additives. Braunschweig, Germany; PhD thesis, Technical University 2020.
10. Milvy P, Cothern CR. Scientific background for the development of regulations for radionuclides in drinking water. In: Cothern CR, Rebers P,editors. Radon, Radium and Uranium in Drinking Water. Chelsea, Michigan: Lewis Publishers 1990. P.1-16.
11. Zaire R, Notter M, Thie, E. Unexpected rates of chromosome instabilities and alteration of hormone levels in Namibian uranium miners. Radiation Research 1997; 147:579-584.
12. Schroeder H, Heimers A, Frentzel Beyme R, Schott A, Hoffmann W. Chromosome aberration analysis in peripheral lymphocytes of Gulf War and Balkans War veterans. Radiation Protecton Dosimetry 2003; 103: 211-219.
13. Busby C, Schnug E. Advanced biochemical and biophysical aspects of uranium contamination. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 11-22.14. Schmitz-Feuerhake I, Bertell R. 2008 Radiological aspects of uranium contamination.
14. Schmitz-Feuerhake I, Bertell R 2008 Radiological aspects of uranium contamination. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 1-10.
15. Miller AC, Stewart M, Brooks K, Shi L, Page N. Depleted uranium catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay. Journal Inorganic Biochemistry 2002; 91: 246-252.
16. Smirnova VS, Gudkov SV, Shtarkman IN, Chernikov AV, Bruskov VI. The genotoxic action of uranyl ions on DNA in vitro caused by the generation of reactive oxygen species. Biofizika Akademija Nauk SSSR 2005; 50:456-463.
17. Miller AC, Mog S, McKinney L, Lei L, Allen J, Xu J, Page N. Neoplastic transformation of human osteoblast cells to the tumorigenic phenotype by heavy metal-tungsten alloy particles: induction of genotoxic effects. Carcinogenesis 2001; 22:115-125.
18. ENVIRHOM 2005. Bioaccumulation of radionuclides in situations of chronic exposure of ecosystems and members of the public. Progress Report No 2. Report DRPH 2005-07, Fontenay aux Roses, France: IRSN, 2005.
19. Thiebault C, Carrière M, Milgram S, Simon A, Avoscan L, Gouge B. Uranium Induces Apoptosis and Is Genotoxic to NormalRat Kidney (NRK-52E) Proximal Cells. Toxicological Sciences 2007; 98(2):479–487.
20. Henner P. 2008. Bioaccumulation of radionuclides and induced biological effects in situations of chronic exposure of ecosystems – an uranium case study. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 23-32.
21. Meshabi A. A review on gold nanoparticles radiosensitization effect in radiation therapy of cancer. Reports of Practical Oncology & Radiotherapy 2010; 15:176-180.
22. Gutiérrez OM, Isakova T, Enfield G, Wolf M. Impact of poverty on serum phosphate concentrations in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2011; 21:140-8. DOI: 10.1053/j.jrn.2010.03.001.
23. Weiner ML, Salminen WF, Larson PR, Barter RA, Kranetz JL, Simon GS. Toxicological review of inorganic phosphates. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2001; 39:759–786.
24. Cooke A. Dietary food-additive phosphate and human health outcomes. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2017; 16:906-1021.
25. Ritz E, Hahn K, Ketteler M, Kuhlmann MK, Mann J. Phosphate additives in food – a health risk. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 2012; 109:49-55.
26. EU. Commission Regulation (EU) No 231/2012 of 9 March 2012 laying down specifications for food additives listed in Annexes II and III to Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Brussels: L83/1. 2012.
27. Günther A, Bernhard G, Geipel G, Reich T, Roßberg A, Nitsche H.. Uranium speciation in plan. Radiochimica Acta 2003; 91:319-328.
28. Spencer H, Osis D, Isabel M. Measured intake and excretion patterns of naturally occurring 234U, 238U, and calcium in humans. Radiation Research 1990; 124:90-5.
29. Zavodska L, Kosorinova E, Skerbakova L, Lesny J. 2019. Environmental chemistry of uranium. HU ISSN 1418-7108: HEJ Manuscript no.: ENV-081221-A. [online] http://heja.szif.hu/ENV/ENV-081221-A/env081221a.pdf. Last accessed on 9 January 2020.
30. Homma-Takeda S, Terada Y, Nakata A,. Sahoo SK, Yoshida S, Ueno S, Inoue M, Iso H, Ishikawa T, Konishi T, Imaseki H, Shimada Y. Elemental imaging of kidneys of adult rats exposed to uranium acetate. Nuclear instruments & methods in physics research section b-beam interactions with materials and atoms 2009; 267:2167-2170. DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2009.03.082
31. Leggett RW. The behaviour and chemical toxicity of U in the kidney: a reassessment. Health Physics 1989; 57(3):365–383.
32. Domingo JL. Chemical toxicity of uranium. Toxicology and Ecotoxicology News 1995; 2(3):74–8.
33. Foulkes EC. The Concept of Critical Levels of Toxic Heavy Metals in Target Tissues. Toxicology 1990; 20:327-339.
34. Vicente-Vicente L, Quiros Y, Pérez-Barriocanal F, López-Novoa JM, López- Hernández FJ, Morales AI. Nephrotoxity of Uranium: Pathophysical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Perspectives. Toxicological Sciences 2010; 118:324-347.
35. Chandrajith R, Seneviratna S, Wickramaarachchi K, Attanayake T, Aturaliya TNC, Dissanayake CB. Natural radionuclides and trace elements in rice field soils in relation to fertilizer application: study of a chronic kidney disease area in Sri Lanka. Environmental Earth Sciences 2010; 60:193-201.
36. Schnug E, Lindemann I. Verringerung der Strahlenbelastung durch bewusstes Konsumverhalten bei Trinkwässern. Strahlentelex Elektrosmog Report 2006; 476-477:4-5.
37. Schnug, E, Steckel H, Haneklaus S. Contribution of uranium in drinking waters to the daily uranium intake of humans - A case study from Northern Germany. Landbauforschung Völkenrode 2005; 55:227-236.
38. Banning A, Benfer M. Drinking Water Uranium and Potential Health Effects in the German Federal State of Bavaria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2017; 14: 927. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14080927.
39. U.S. Health Dept. 2013. Toxicological profile for uranium, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry.
40. Chevari S, Likhner D. Complex Formation of Natural Uranium in Blood. Journal of Radiology and Medical Imaging 1968; 13:53-7.
41. Anonymous. Der Calcium- und Phosphathaushalt [cited 27 April 2021]. Available from: https://www.lecturio.de/magazin/der-calcium-und-phosphathaushalt/.
42. Barkleit A, Hennig C, Ikeda-Ohno A. Interaction of uranium (VI) with α-amylase and its implication for enzyme activity. Chemical Research in Toxicology 2018; 31:1032−1041. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00106.
43. Bing D, Heyi W, Shubin J, Junge M. The biodistribution of uranium in mice. Environmental Chemistry 2011; 30:1247-1252.
44. Ali M, Kumar A, Kuma M, Pandey BN. The interaction of human serum albumin with selected lanthanide and actinide ions: Binding affinities, protein unfolding and conformational changes. Biochemie 2016; 123:117−129.
45. Kumar A, Ali M, Ningthoujam RS,. Gaikwad P, Kumar M, Nath BB, Pandey BN. The interaction of actinide and lanthanide ions with hemoglobin and its relevance to human and environmental toxicology. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2016; 307: 281−293.
46. Muller D, Houpert P, Cambar J, Henge-Napoli MH. Role of the sodium- dependent phosphate co-transporters and of the phosphate complexes of uranyl in the cytotoxicity of uranium in LLC-PK1 cells. Toxicology Applied Pharmacology 2006; 214:166-177.
47. Liu F, Du KJ, Fang Z, You Y, Wen GB, Lin YW. Chemical and biological insights into uranium-induced apoptosis of rat hepatic cell line. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics 2015; 54:207-216. DOI: 10.1007/s00411-015-0588-3.
48. Camalier CE, Young MR, Bobe G, Perella CM, Colburn NH, Beck Jr. GR. 2010. Elevated phosphate activates N-ras and promotes cell transformation and skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Prevention Research (Phila) 2010; 3:359-70. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0068.
49. Konietzka R. Gastrointestinal absorption of uranium compounds - a review. Regulatory Toxicolology and Pharmacology 2015; 71: 125-33, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.08.012.
50. Sela H, Karpas Z, Zoriy M, Pickhardt C, Becker JS. Biomonitoring of hair samples by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP- MS). International Journal Mass Spectrometry 2006; 261:199-207.
51. Sullivan M F, Ruemmler PS, Ryan JL, Buschbom RL. Influence of oxidizing or reducing agents on gastrointestinal absorption of U, Pu, Am, Cm and Pm by rats. Health Physics 1986; 50:223-232.
52. Hassoun R. 2012. A statistical evaluation of the contribution of mineral and tap water to the dietary intake of As, B, Cu, Li, Mo, Ni, Pb, U and Zn by humans. Braunschweig, Germany; PhD thesis, Technical University 2020.
53. Eastwood M. Principles of human nutrition. 2nd edition Weinheim: Wiley-Blackwell; 2003.
54. Schnug E, Hassoun R, Holzhausen K, Jacobs F, Haneklaus SH. Contribution of mineral and tap water to the dietary intake of As, B, Ca, Ce, Cu, F, La, Li, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Sr, U and Zn by humans. In: Grumezescu A, Butu A, editors. Bottled and Packaged Water. 2019; 1st edition, Volume 4: The Science of Beverages. p. 241-274. DOI:10.1016/B978-0-12-815272-0.00010-6.
55. Berdanier CD. Handbook of Nutrition and Food, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002.
56. Vanevijvere S, Jaacks LM, Monteiro CA, Moubarac J-C, Girling-Butcher M, Lee AC, Pan A, Bentham J, Sinburn B. Global trends in ultraprocessed food and drink product sales and their association with adult body mass index trajectories. Obesity Reviews 2019; 20:10-19.
2. WHO. 2012. Uranium in drinking water, Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/118/Rev/1.
3. EPA. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Radionuclides 2000; 40CFR Part 141 (65FR 76708, Dec 7th 2000).
4. MTVO. 2006. Mineral- und Tafelwasser- Verordnung vom 1. August 1984, BGB1. I S. 1036, zuletzt geändert durch die Vierte Verordnung zur Änderung der Mineral- und Tafelwasser-Verordnung v. 1. 2006 Dezember 2006, BGB1. Bonn 11. Dezember, 2006. Teil 1 Nr. 56, 2762- 763. [online]
5. TrinkwV. Erste Verordnung zur Änderung der Trinkwasserverordnung vom 3. Mai 2011, Bundesgesetzblatt Jahrgang 2011 Teil 1 Nr. 21. Bonn: 11. November 2011, 748-774.
6. Knolle F. A contribution to occurrence and origin of uranium in German mineral and tap waters. Braunschweig, Germany; PhD thesis, Technical University 2008.
7. Schnug E, Birke M, Costa N, Knolle F, Fleckenstein J, Panten K, Lilienthal H, Haneklaus S. Uranium in German mineral and tap waters. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 91-110.
8. Royal Society.The Health hazards of depleted uranium munitions. Part I, London: The Royal Society, 2001.
9. Windmann H. A contribution to the risk assessment of uranium contamination in the food chain through phosphate containing fertilizers, feed and food additives. Braunschweig, Germany; PhD thesis, Technical University 2020.
10. Milvy P, Cothern CR. Scientific background for the development of regulations for radionuclides in drinking water. In: Cothern CR, Rebers P,editors. Radon, Radium and Uranium in Drinking Water. Chelsea, Michigan: Lewis Publishers 1990. P.1-16.
11. Zaire R, Notter M, Thie, E. Unexpected rates of chromosome instabilities and alteration of hormone levels in Namibian uranium miners. Radiation Research 1997; 147:579-584.
12. Schroeder H, Heimers A, Frentzel Beyme R, Schott A, Hoffmann W. Chromosome aberration analysis in peripheral lymphocytes of Gulf War and Balkans War veterans. Radiation Protecton Dosimetry 2003; 103: 211-219.
13. Busby C, Schnug E. Advanced biochemical and biophysical aspects of uranium contamination. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 11-22.14. Schmitz-Feuerhake I, Bertell R. 2008 Radiological aspects of uranium contamination.
14. Schmitz-Feuerhake I, Bertell R 2008 Radiological aspects of uranium contamination. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 1-10.
15. Miller AC, Stewart M, Brooks K, Shi L, Page N. Depleted uranium catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay. Journal Inorganic Biochemistry 2002; 91: 246-252.
16. Smirnova VS, Gudkov SV, Shtarkman IN, Chernikov AV, Bruskov VI. The genotoxic action of uranyl ions on DNA in vitro caused by the generation of reactive oxygen species. Biofizika Akademija Nauk SSSR 2005; 50:456-463.
17. Miller AC, Mog S, McKinney L, Lei L, Allen J, Xu J, Page N. Neoplastic transformation of human osteoblast cells to the tumorigenic phenotype by heavy metal-tungsten alloy particles: induction of genotoxic effects. Carcinogenesis 2001; 22:115-125.
18. ENVIRHOM 2005. Bioaccumulation of radionuclides in situations of chronic exposure of ecosystems and members of the public. Progress Report No 2. Report DRPH 2005-07, Fontenay aux Roses, France: IRSN, 2005.
19. Thiebault C, Carrière M, Milgram S, Simon A, Avoscan L, Gouge B. Uranium Induces Apoptosis and Is Genotoxic to NormalRat Kidney (NRK-52E) Proximal Cells. Toxicological Sciences 2007; 98(2):479–487.
20. Henner P. 2008. Bioaccumulation of radionuclides and induced biological effects in situations of chronic exposure of ecosystems – an uranium case study. In: De Kok LJ, Schnug E, editors. Loads and fate of fertilizer derived uranium. Leiden: Backhys; 2008. p. 23-32.
21. Meshabi A. A review on gold nanoparticles radiosensitization effect in radiation therapy of cancer. Reports of Practical Oncology & Radiotherapy 2010; 15:176-180.
22. Gutiérrez OM, Isakova T, Enfield G, Wolf M. Impact of poverty on serum phosphate concentrations in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2011; 21:140-8. DOI: 10.1053/j.jrn.2010.03.001.
23. Weiner ML, Salminen WF, Larson PR, Barter RA, Kranetz JL, Simon GS. Toxicological review of inorganic phosphates. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2001; 39:759–786.
24. Cooke A. Dietary food-additive phosphate and human health outcomes. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2017; 16:906-1021.
25. Ritz E, Hahn K, Ketteler M, Kuhlmann MK, Mann J. Phosphate additives in food – a health risk. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 2012; 109:49-55.
26. EU. Commission Regulation (EU) No 231/2012 of 9 March 2012 laying down specifications for food additives listed in Annexes II and III to Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Brussels: L83/1. 2012.
27. Günther A, Bernhard G, Geipel G, Reich T, Roßberg A, Nitsche H.. Uranium speciation in plan. Radiochimica Acta 2003; 91:319-328.
28. Spencer H, Osis D, Isabel M. Measured intake and excretion patterns of naturally occurring 234U, 238U, and calcium in humans. Radiation Research 1990; 124:90-5.
29. Zavodska L, Kosorinova E, Skerbakova L, Lesny J. 2019. Environmental chemistry of uranium. HU ISSN 1418-7108: HEJ Manuscript no.: ENV-081221-A. [online] http://heja.szif.hu/ENV/ENV-081221-A/env081221a.pdf. Last accessed on 9 January 2020.
30. Homma-Takeda S, Terada Y, Nakata A,. Sahoo SK, Yoshida S, Ueno S, Inoue M, Iso H, Ishikawa T, Konishi T, Imaseki H, Shimada Y. Elemental imaging of kidneys of adult rats exposed to uranium acetate. Nuclear instruments & methods in physics research section b-beam interactions with materials and atoms 2009; 267:2167-2170. DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2009.03.082
31. Leggett RW. The behaviour and chemical toxicity of U in the kidney: a reassessment. Health Physics 1989; 57(3):365–383.
32. Domingo JL. Chemical toxicity of uranium. Toxicology and Ecotoxicology News 1995; 2(3):74–8.
33. Foulkes EC. The Concept of Critical Levels of Toxic Heavy Metals in Target Tissues. Toxicology 1990; 20:327-339.
34. Vicente-Vicente L, Quiros Y, Pérez-Barriocanal F, López-Novoa JM, López- Hernández FJ, Morales AI. Nephrotoxity of Uranium: Pathophysical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Perspectives. Toxicological Sciences 2010; 118:324-347.
35. Chandrajith R, Seneviratna S, Wickramaarachchi K, Attanayake T, Aturaliya TNC, Dissanayake CB. Natural radionuclides and trace elements in rice field soils in relation to fertilizer application: study of a chronic kidney disease area in Sri Lanka. Environmental Earth Sciences 2010; 60:193-201.
36. Schnug E, Lindemann I. Verringerung der Strahlenbelastung durch bewusstes Konsumverhalten bei Trinkwässern. Strahlentelex Elektrosmog Report 2006; 476-477:4-5.
37. Schnug, E, Steckel H, Haneklaus S. Contribution of uranium in drinking waters to the daily uranium intake of humans - A case study from Northern Germany. Landbauforschung Völkenrode 2005; 55:227-236.
38. Banning A, Benfer M. Drinking Water Uranium and Potential Health Effects in the German Federal State of Bavaria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2017; 14: 927. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14080927.
39. U.S. Health Dept. 2013. Toxicological profile for uranium, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry.
40. Chevari S, Likhner D. Complex Formation of Natural Uranium in Blood. Journal of Radiology and Medical Imaging 1968; 13:53-7.
41. Anonymous. Der Calcium- und Phosphathaushalt [cited 27 April 2021]. Available from: https://www.lecturio.de/magazin/der-calcium-und-phosphathaushalt/.
42. Barkleit A, Hennig C, Ikeda-Ohno A. Interaction of uranium (VI) with α-amylase and its implication for enzyme activity. Chemical Research in Toxicology 2018; 31:1032−1041. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00106.
43. Bing D, Heyi W, Shubin J, Junge M. The biodistribution of uranium in mice. Environmental Chemistry 2011; 30:1247-1252.
44. Ali M, Kumar A, Kuma M, Pandey BN. The interaction of human serum albumin with selected lanthanide and actinide ions: Binding affinities, protein unfolding and conformational changes. Biochemie 2016; 123:117−129.
45. Kumar A, Ali M, Ningthoujam RS,. Gaikwad P, Kumar M, Nath BB, Pandey BN. The interaction of actinide and lanthanide ions with hemoglobin and its relevance to human and environmental toxicology. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2016; 307: 281−293.
46. Muller D, Houpert P, Cambar J, Henge-Napoli MH. Role of the sodium- dependent phosphate co-transporters and of the phosphate complexes of uranyl in the cytotoxicity of uranium in LLC-PK1 cells. Toxicology Applied Pharmacology 2006; 214:166-177.
47. Liu F, Du KJ, Fang Z, You Y, Wen GB, Lin YW. Chemical and biological insights into uranium-induced apoptosis of rat hepatic cell line. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics 2015; 54:207-216. DOI: 10.1007/s00411-015-0588-3.
48. Camalier CE, Young MR, Bobe G, Perella CM, Colburn NH, Beck Jr. GR. 2010. Elevated phosphate activates N-ras and promotes cell transformation and skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Prevention Research (Phila) 2010; 3:359-70. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0068.
49. Konietzka R. Gastrointestinal absorption of uranium compounds - a review. Regulatory Toxicolology and Pharmacology 2015; 71: 125-33, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.08.012.
50. Sela H, Karpas Z, Zoriy M, Pickhardt C, Becker JS. Biomonitoring of hair samples by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP- MS). International Journal Mass Spectrometry 2006; 261:199-207.
51. Sullivan M F, Ruemmler PS, Ryan JL, Buschbom RL. Influence of oxidizing or reducing agents on gastrointestinal absorption of U, Pu, Am, Cm and Pm by rats. Health Physics 1986; 50:223-232.
52. Hassoun R. 2012. A statistical evaluation of the contribution of mineral and tap water to the dietary intake of As, B, Cu, Li, Mo, Ni, Pb, U and Zn by humans. Braunschweig, Germany; PhD thesis, Technical University 2020.
53. Eastwood M. Principles of human nutrition. 2nd edition Weinheim: Wiley-Blackwell; 2003.
54. Schnug E, Hassoun R, Holzhausen K, Jacobs F, Haneklaus SH. Contribution of mineral and tap water to the dietary intake of As, B, Ca, Ce, Cu, F, La, Li, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Sr, U and Zn by humans. In: Grumezescu A, Butu A, editors. Bottled and Packaged Water. 2019; 1st edition, Volume 4: The Science of Beverages. p. 241-274. DOI:10.1016/B978-0-12-815272-0.00010-6.
55. Berdanier CD. Handbook of Nutrition and Food, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002.
56. Vanevijvere S, Jaacks LM, Monteiro CA, Moubarac J-C, Girling-Butcher M, Lee AC, Pan A, Bentham J, Sinburn B. Global trends in ultraprocessed food and drink product sales and their association with adult body mass index trajectories. Obesity Reviews 2019; 20:10-19.