Measure of translation transformations in rendering a science text

achieve the pragmatically equivalent translation.

Generally, a translation, which is semantically precise and structurally close to the original, very often hinders achieving the equivalent impact of the source and target texts. In other words, the two criteria of faithful translation -the equivalence of regulatory effect of the source text (ST) and target text (TT) and their semantic and structural similarity can contradict each other [13, p. 34]. And this conflict is settled by deliberate deviating from structural and semantic parallelism of ST and TT, to achieve their impact equivalence. These deviations are called transformations in translation.
This contradiction may be explained by a number of reasons related to the text and the man. Man's response to the text is not only determined by the text features but also by preconditions a man should have to adequately perceive and interpret the text. These include habits for certain language standards and stereotypes, knowledge of source language and background knowledge. And these factors that ensure successful language communication are called communicative competences [13, p. 36].
A correlation of text features and (the) reader's communicative competence helps (to) define the impact produced by the text on its reader, which is the key notion in the conception of measure in the use of translation transformations offered by the prominent translation theorist L. Latyshev [13]. The conception of measure provides a solid base for understanding the nature and necessity of transformations in translation.
To render the source text regulatory impact, it is necessary to ensure approximately similar correlations -a correlation of TT features with the communicative competence of the TT native speaker and a correlation of ST features with the communicative competence of the ST native speaker [13, p. 36]. Significant divergences in communicative competences of the ST and TT native speakers and the necessity of their levelling or «smoothing» aimed at achieving the equivalent ST and TT impact bring about transformations in translation.
The translation theory suggests various definitions and classifications of translation transformations. In the broadest sense, translation has always been a transformation, the term being borrowed from Z. Harris's transformational grammar [9]. As viewed by O. Selivanova, translation transformations is the translator's creative activity in transforming the original text into the target text by using special techniques aimed at achieving the translation equivalence as a balance of different types of information [22, p. 849]. Narrowly defined, a translation transformation means modification of form, or semantics and form in a translated text, to reach a balance of various information types and the pragmatic impact on the translation recipient, if compared to the original text [22, p. 850]. Such transformations are caused either by systemic divergences of two languages (systemic transformations) or by differences in cultures, ontologies of two peoples, interpretation program of readers of source and target texts (functional transformations). With this in mind, for the purpose of our research, we used the following definition of translation transformations that are viewed as deliberate deviations from objectively possible language parallelism aimed at achieving communicative and functional equivalence of source and target texts [14, p. 58].
A central issue in the discussion of translation transformations is to what degree they are necessary and admissible. Very often, translation transformations are missing in cases when they should be used. They can also be insufficient or excessive, or needless at all. And here we deal with the two traditional translation notions -literal and free (loose) translations. Literalisms appear when the translator renders the text too close to the original, without performing necessary transformations: An adequate measure of transformations is in the middle between literal and free translation. It is this measure that characterises a high-quality translation. In practice, this measure is ensured by translator's professional flair. Theoretically, to find the adequate measure means to find a faithful translation variant in conformity with three criteria offered by L. Latyshev: motivation of transformations, minimalism in the use of transformations and principal boundedness of transformations [13, p. 47].
A transformation must be motivated by the necessity of achieving the regulatory effect of ST and TT. Unmotivated transformations are called free translations and are thus rejected. Translation minimalism suggests the idea that, with several possible transformations, the translator prefers the one that achieves the equivalence of regulatory impact with minimum walkouts from semantics and structure of the original. With the third criterion, a greater divergence in communicative competences of ST and TT native speakers requires a greater degree of transformations. However, in some cases, the levelling of the communicative competences may need transformations that are inadmissible in translation as their application turns the translation into a different type of language mediation [13, p. 47].
To some extent, limitations in the size and depth of compensational deviations between the ST and the TT depend on the style and genre of the original text -deviations that are common for literary translation may not be admissible in rendering a science text.
The goal of our study was to analyse the measure of translation transformations in a science text -a foundational history research «The Celts: A Chronological History» by the Irish scientist Dáithí Ó hÓgáin, translated into Ukrainian by T. Boiko. We took a close look at the translator's solutions (in selected text fragments) and evaluated the degree of semantic and structural divergences between the source and target texts, with regard to the translation solutions that were used to achieve the pragmatically equivalent translation.
In his science monograph, Dáithí Ó hÓgáin, the well-known Irish folklore researcher, investigates the history of Celts, whose civilisation had long powered all over Europe and made a significant impact on the subsequent development European nations.
Generally, a monograph assumes rather long accumulation and interpretation of scientific material. An essential characteristic of a monograph is subjective and objective features introduced by a creative author. Author's personality and his academic authority influence the scientific and communicative importance of the monograph. One-author monographs are generally peculiar of the human sciences, they are freer and less regulated in expressing subjective views and estimates, less standardized in compositional and stylistic features. And the knowledge of genre and stylistic characteristics of the text -the so called «rules of the genre» -is a key to successful translation, which is possible due to the translator's good command of the language of science, appropriate and skilful use of various translation devices.
Our analysis has shown that the translation solutions were generally motivated -the translator Taras Boiko used a broad arsenal of translation techniques to achieve the pragmatic equivalence of the original and translated texts. The target text abounds in transformations, though there were, as we feel, inadmissible semantic and structural deviations from the original text, which should be analysed with respect to translator's motifs. Fragment 1 is an example of minimal motivated transformations, which are quite rare in the translated text: The translation solutions in Sentence 3 are generally grounded, the translator finds interesting emotionally coloured equivalents, what demonstrates his rich native vocabulary. However, the name of the Rhine River should have been transcoded as Рейн, according to the phonetic tradition.  (drew to a conclusionіз завершенням...), a clarifying addition (that large areaна території

Європи), a transposition (a variety (of population groups)різноманітні (групи населення)).
However, the translator failed to convey modality in this text fragment -must have been is an essential semantic component here and it should have been compensated if omitted. Though, in Fragment 5 the translator was more attentive and found a faithful equivalent of the modal verb by adding the adverb очевидно: 5 In Fragment 7, the translator left out the clause as we shall see, and used no compensational devices. The translated sentence could also benefit if the meaning of the -ing form had been rendered: the expanding La Tene cultureлатенська культура, що розширювала свій вплив.
But the greatest number of unmotivated transformations falls to unnecessary paraphrases (Examples 8 and 9), which hamper conveying the communicative effect of the original text: In Fragment 8, we observe an unreasonable paraphrase that changes the meaning of the sentence -the 'La Tene' culture is mentioned in the source text for the first time and what the translator needed to do is to keep closer to the original in rendering this meaning, without unnecessary structural changes. In Fragment 9, nothing prevented the translator from rendering the meaning of this sentence more accurately and closer to the original. Besides, the translator should have also been more attentive to the original text and convey all the elements of sense without omissionsor earlier has been left unrendered.

Iron had been available since the ninth century BC or earlier, and the use of it for weapons had gradually increased
The translated text abounds in cases of free translation -for a science text, there are too many of them, and most often they are unreasonable: As the textual analysis shows, the source text is largely humanitarian, it contains no specialised scientific vocabulary, no narrow history terms but rather expressive lexis. At first sight, the text admits higher freedom of deviations from the original. However, the translator should be guided first of all by the minimalism criterion in finding the adequate measure of his translation transformations.
In our view, the translator of a science text should first of all guard the meaning of the text from any misrepresentations -distortions, inaccuracies and unclarities in L. Latyshev's classification of mistakes that arise in rendering the sense of the source text [13, p.235]. Except the above described translation inaccuracies, the target text also contains distortions of meaning: 11. Large iron-working centres were established between the Alps and the Danube, and these produced -in addition to weapons -a wide variety of tools which greatly increased their technical capacity [26, p. 6]. -Великі залізоплавильні центри були засновані між Альпами й Дунаєм, і там крім зброї виробляли широкий асортимент знарядь із високотехнічними характеристиками [25, c. 9].
So, in the above clause which greatly increased their technical capacity the pronoun their definitely refers to the iron-working centres that significantly enlarged their production load due to the manufacture of tools, but not to characteristics of these tools. This example can be classified as a translator's mistake.
The translation of Fragment 12 also illustrates a serious distortion in meaning -the translator failed to understand and thus interpret correctly the cause-and-effect relationships in this sentence: To our point of view, this sentence could be translated with minimal structural and semantic deviations, with maximum proximity to the original:
Another distortion of meaning is observed in Fragment 13, due to translator's choosing the wrong dictionary equivalent of the noun work-shopвиробничі потужності, instead of a more faithful цех, майстерня. Unrendered here is also the meaning of the word combination master smithмайстер-коваль: 13 Thus, an adequate measure of translation transformations allows to realise the second major requirement to the target text -in each specific case, it provides for maximum (but not at all minimum) possible semantic and structural similarity of source and target texts, if it only does not contradict the first major requirement of identical regulatory effect of the original and its translation.
Our study has proved that the translator of any text, and a science text in particular, should always restrict himself to the three principles which determine the adequate measure of a translation transformation. The translator should avoid pure unreasonable modifications, in keeping with the motivation principle, reasonable but excessive transformations, in conformity with the minimalism principle, and transformations that have a motif but go beyond the permissible limits, in terms of the principle of general boundedness of a translation transformation. The measure of trans-lation transformations in the analysed text was not always adequate, due to frequent unmotivated deviations from the original text. This often marked down the pragmatic impact of the translated text. It is important for the translator to always find the golden mean -too radical transformations lead to loose translation and the non-use of transformations when necessary results in literal translation. In general, the target text demonstrates translator's rich vocabulary, a broad arsenal of translation solutions, but very often fails to produce the identical communicative effect. The translator should strive for an adequate measure of transformations which is an important feature of a high-quality translation.