Wood fuel in the (Intended) Nationally Determined Contributions of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa

Woodfuel is extremely important for energy security in Africa. About eighty percent of both rural and urban populations in the 49 countries that comprise South-Saharan (SSA) Africa rely on wood-based biomass to satisfy their energy needs, especially for cooking. Under the Paris Agreement for Climate Change, countries have submitted their 'Intended Nationally Determined Contributions' (INDCs) to the Secretariat of the United Nations Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC), to define their national ambitions. After Paris, these have now become legally binding NDCs. Therefore, the role that woodfuel plays in the NDCs of SSA countries needs to be assessed. We reviewed and assessed INDC/NDCs of a selection of SSA countries to identify how they focus on wood fuel. This paper provides a first analysis of the role that woodfuels play in the NDCs. Only five of the 22 countries analyzed do not mention wood fuels at all. While all of those that do mention roadmaps, only just over half of them offer budgetary considerations, and about half of them identify institutional responsibilities for the woodfuel sector. In many NDCs, woodfuel is seen as a backwater technology, and not the renewable energy source it could be come if sustainably harvested and managed. We find that, overall, next iterations of the NDCs in SSA countries need to become more specific regarding the role of woodfuels in national climate and development policies.

• Seventeen countries that mention wood fuel show intention to increasingly use renewable energy as a mitigation measure (wind, solar and hydropower are mostly mentioned).Three countries want to increase the efficiency of electricity grids.
• Most INDC/NDCs refer to a variety of national plans and policies, but for the majority of countries (17 of 22), it is not apparent what progress has been made in implementing these plans.
• Many INDC/NDCs cite the supporting national policies and strategy documents.Countries have ambitious plans, but need much more clarity on responsibilities, institutions, planning,roadmaps and financial help to implement them.It is important that the NDCs be integrated broadly into national planning processes for future development pathways, and associated activities and investments.
• Only 55% of the investigated INDC/NDCs provide a budget for their implementation.External financial support is vital for successful implementation of many INDC/NDCs, but countries do not generally indicate amounts and kinds of funding they already receive.
• When charcoal is portrayed as a problem, the prioritized solution is often electrification (e.g.hydroenergy or fossil-fuel powered generators), but increasing other forms of renewable energy, such as wind and solar, is sometimes mentioned as an alternative.
• Half of the sampled countries have national energy policies with renewable energy targets.The others have non specific energy actions referring to general policies (NAPs and NAPAs).Lack of energy specific policies is therefore a common phenomenon that needs addressing.It is important that NDCs be integrated into national planning processes for future development pathways, and that associated activities and investments be outlined in more detail.
• Overall, future NDCs in SSA need to become more specific regarding wood fuel.While all of them mention roadmaps, only just about half of them identify institutional responsibilities for the wood fuel sector.This stands in stark contrast to the importance of wood fuel as a key energy source in Sub-Saharan African countries.

Introduction
Reliance on wood-based energy from firewood and charcoal is far greater in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) than in any other region in the world.A study by Behrendt et al.(2013) shows that in the 49 countries comprising SSA, the majority (80%) of both rural and urban populations rely on wood-based biomass to satisfy their energy needs, especially for cooking.In Africa, the most common forms of wood fuel are firewood and charcoal, which are mostly used by domestic households and small industries for heating purposes (Bailis et al. 2015).
The use of wood fuel is ambiguous as it can lead to forest degradation and deforestation, but can also become part of ).We considered both INDCs and NDCs in this study, but in a comparison, we found that there were few differences between them due to the automatic nature of the transference of INDCs to NDCs.Therefore, in this paper, we refer to them collectively as INDC/NDCs.
This study aimed to identify: (i) how wood-based energy use is covered in the various INDC/NDCs; (ii) the various legal frameworks and processes under which renewable energy is to be managed; and (iii) how the countries' plans for wood fuel's future management will contribute to reduced GHG emissions.

Methods
Stratified random sampling was applied to select a subset of countries of the SSA region for analysis.Twenty-two countries were randomly selected from the data set3 .The INDC/NDC documents were reviewed using the following criteria: how wood fuel was introduced, listed or framed in the INDCs; the existence or listing of renewable energy plans and energy efficiency plans; and the existence of supporting national policies and strategic documents that may or may not be implemented.These criteria were used to show whether and how countries prioritized wood-fuel consumption and how they could formulate a strategy for the sustainable consumption of wood fuel and use of alternative energies.
A literature search was carried out using bibliographic databases, such as Web of Science (Thomson Reuters) and Scopus (Elsevier), and institutional websites and databases (e.g.UNFCCC).The key words used to search for relevant literature were: 'wood fuel', 'energy policies', 'renewable energy' and 'woody biomass energy'.Francophone countries in the sub-Saharan region submitted their INDCs in French; these were translated to English via a PDF document translator website 4 .
A matrix was developed to rate wood-fuel consumption, the proposed problem, against the solutions (alternative energies, energy efficiency, supporting policies, green growth economy, etc.) proposed by the countries.

Results
The countries in our sample focused on different issues in varying levels of detail in their INDCs.Yet, some common elements are presented by all countries: low carbon development plans, summaries of adaptation and mitigation measures, quantified emissions reduction goals for 2030, overall estimations of investment needed to finance INDC measures and plans, technology transfer and capacity-building needs (Osman-Elasha et al. 2016).

The focus on wood fuel in African countries' INDC/NDCs
Five of the 22 countries analyzed do not mention wood fuel at all in their INDC/NDCs.Two of these (South Africa and Botswana) are heavily dependent on coal and will likely continue to be so.This might explain the absence of wood fuel from their INDC/NDCs.The other three (Ghana, Mozambique and Guinea Bissau) gave no conclusive reason.
Three of the 22 countries did not mention wood fuel in the problem statement but referred to it as a mitigation measure/adaptation action to be implemented.This may suggest that these countries depend on wood fuel to a certain degree or enough that current wood fuel use is considered unsustainable.
Fourteen countries mention wood fuel in their problem statement and give various reasons (e.g.land-use change, climate variability and GHG inventory).Eight (36%) of these 14 countries have also quantified the problem, stating that wood fuels are responsible for 70%-97% of national fuel consumption, which illustrates the extent of wood-fuel consumption in the country.

Renewable energy as mitigation
Seventeen countries mention wood fuel in their document.All of these express an intention to engage in renewable energy development of some sort as a mitigation measure.They list various actions that will promote the use of renewable energy in the country (see Table 1).Fourteen focus on wind, solar and hydropower to fill the current deficit.The three remaining countries focus on increasing the efficiency of electricity grids.

Energy sector reforms as a mitigation action
The INDC/NDCs of the countries analyzed identify the energy sector as a priority for mitigation action.Planned or listed activities range from general sector-wide targets, such as increasing renewable electricity generation, to specific action items, such as distributing clean cook stoves (e.g.Cameroon).
In terms of legal frameworks to support this, eight of the 17 countries that include wood fuel in their INDC/NDCs refer to national energy policies, through which the renewable energy targets are supposed to be achieved, while the other nine countries refer to general policies within their INDC/ NDCs that include energy actions.The INDC/NDCs generally lack information on implementation.

Adaptation
Seventeen of the 22 countries mention a National Adaptation Plan (NAP) or equivalent national plan or strategy, and/or have begun adaptation implementation according to their INDCs.Eleven have completed their NAP or equivalent national plan or strategy.Six are in the process of planning or declare an intention to plan (either developing a NAP or equivalent national strategy) and five provide no indication of adaptation planning in their INDCs.In general, it can be argued that the realities of policy development related to the preparation of the INDCs provide grounds for increased action in the future.However, the timing and scale of such enhanced action depends on the determination of governments and the long-term effectiveness of the 2015 agreement.

Indicators of success
The majority of the countries analyzed (17 of the 22) specify deforestation as a policy progress indicator, which seems an inadequate measure to gage progress on instruments and practices in the wood-fuel sector.Five of 22 countries (Botswana, Burundi, Kenya, Mozambique and South Africa) mention climate variables as their indicators, e.g.drought, floods, temperature variability.Mitigation action measures commonly mentioned toward reducing deforestation are afforestation, reforestation activities and natural regeneration of forests, for which budgets are included in the INDCs (Table 2).
Reforestation and ecosystem restoration are major and crucially needed elements of pathways to meeting the Paris goals, because only the land sector has the potential to build a positive sink for carbon emitted to the atmosphere.The reforested and restored areas would need to be protected against illegal logging and degradation from selective firewood extraction.The INDC/NDCs in our sample do not seem to recognize the importance of this, with the exception of five countries (Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania).
It seems that sectoral indicators to address wood-fuel sustainability are underdeveloped.For sustainable management of the sector, administrations need to gain better understanding of how unsustainable practices are effectively being pushed back, and what the results of this are along the whole value chain.Likewise, indicators are needed to show how sustainable practice toward integrating bio-based fuels in a healthy energy mix is fostered.Synergies can be gained in linking this to the efforts that countries undertake to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where SDG 7 aims to "Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all."

Synergies between mitigation and development action
Sixteen of the 22 countries mention the need to develop synergies between the suggested actions to address climate change and development priorities (see also discussion above on integration with SDGs).Development includes social and economic development and poverty eradication, e.g.improvement in air quality, human health and job creation.In the 16 countries, links are being made in the INDC/NDCs between adaptation and mitigation measures, in particular agriculture and forestry; for example, sustainable land management practices, improved livestock production practices, and protection and restoration of forests.These are adaptation measures with mitigation co-benefits.Synergies are being sought at project, sector or landscape level, in planning or institutional frameworks at national, regional and local level, and in urban and rural settings.This synergy is viewed as part of their overall low-emission, climate-resilient development strategy.

Finance
All countries in our sample mention the need for financial support from the international community and donors in order to be able to fulfill their INDC/NDCs, with regard to both mitigation and adaptation actions in the INDC/NDC.
Only three countries (Mozambique, Malawi and Guinea Bissau) do not provide any financial budget figures for their contribution activities, although they mention that financial support will be crucial for them.The majority, 12 countries, mention elaborate financial budgets for these sectors and further distinguish clearly between mitigation and/or adaptation activities mentioned in the INDC/NDCs.This is an indication that governments have been making efforts toward more elaborate financial budget plans.The agriculture sector is likely to receive the majority of the funding (see Table 2).Six countries (Central African Republic, Kenya, Ghana, Namibia, South Sudan, Tanzania and Zambia) only provide blanket financial budgets stating that it will enable them to fulfill their adaptation and mitigation contributions.

Implementation of INDC/NDC with road maps and institutional set-ups
All countries mention implementation plans with road maps for their INDC/NDCs (see Table 3).They include the creation of specific laws and policies to facilitate INDC implementation; for example, capacity building, technology transfer and funding, and stakeholder consultation for the INDC preparations.Ten countries mention institutional set-ups, which include indicating which government departments are responsible for INDC implementation.Also included are budget allocations for adaptation and mitigation measures (see Table 3).Eight countries mention partial budgets meant for adaptation and mitigation measures.Only four countries do not provide a budget (Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique and Somalia).

Discussion and conclusions
The main aim of this study was to understand the role and consideration given to wood fuel in INDCs in selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa.The majority of the countries (78%) have identified wood fuel either as a problem to be addressed in their INDC/NDCs, or as part of their mitigation and adaptation measures.This is a positive sign.However, the priority given to wood fuel varies between these countries.A highlight is the INDC of Somalia, which has a section on charcoal production and export that explains in detail how charcoal production affects the environment.Some countries that do not mention wood fuels in their INDC/NDCs, e.g.Ghana, instead mention renewable energy, degraded land and reforestation as part of their mitigation and adaptation measure.We would like to note that a limitation of the present study (and of the analyzed INDC/NDCs in general) is the lack of reliable wood-fuel consumption data.More support is needed for the collection, processing and publication of reliable data.
Few countries have quantified the environmental or climate impacts of wood-fuel consumption.There is lack of consensus on specific criteria and information that should be provided regarding the scope and nature of INDCs.The lack of standardization gives wide flexibility for countries to include the types of information they deem adequate (Merrill et al. 2015).While this may have been intentional in the development of the INDC process, it will hamper comparison among INDCs and make it difficult to measure progress in later phases.Energy profiles vary from one country to another, based on country wealth, access to electricity, and availability and cost of wood and fossil-fuel energy.Growth of electricity demand in SSA countries is anticipated as they continue to develop.Modernization of energy generation and transmission infrastructure increases efficiency and hence reduces costs and emissions, e.g.South Africa program on reforming coal power stations, but may relegate wood fuel, a potentially clean and sustainable resource, further into the background.
Concerning renewable energy, these countries show a trend towards the increase of energy mix and more investment in solar, hydro and wind power to increase electrification potential in their respective countries.Despite the fact that 90% of the countries analyzed mention increased renewable energy as a mitigation measure, it is difficult to accurately judge the level of ambition countries have with their renewable goals.Information on the current share of renewables/installed renewable capacity, projected energy consumption development and the type of financing that is envisioned is needed, in addition to the renewable targets, to make accurate assessments (Stephan et al. 2016).
Around half of the countries in the sample have national energy policies with renewable energy targets.The others have nonspecific energy actions that refer to general policies (NAPs and NAPAs) with energy actions.Lack of energy specific policies is therefore a common phenomenon that needs addressing.There is need for energy specific policies to underpin an effective implementation of renewable energy actions.General policies may have clauses on renewable energy but mostly do not outline proper steps.In addition, the responsibilities are not made clear, resulting in the overlap of jurisdictions of the respective government sectors for environment and energy.
The majority of INDC/NDCs do not mention fossil-fuel subsidies or reforms.Among those that do are the INDC/NDCs of Ghana and Burkina Faso, but in most countries, apparently, fossil-fuel subsidy reforms have not been fully taken on board in the INDCs.In spite of the fact that this could have a clear impact on global emissions, as well as economic benefits for the countries.
Adaptation measures suggested by the analyzed countries mention specific policies and laws.The majority (78%) of the countries mention a NAP or equivalent national plan or strategy, and/or have begun adaptation implementation.Eighty-one percent of the countries (see Table 1) mention policies specific to climate change.Understanding the degree of implementation would require further detailed analysis of country policies and activities, e.g. from interviews assessing national activities.Therefore, it is important that NDCs be integrated into national planning processes for future development pathways, and that associated activities and investments be outlined in more detail.
Finance is a central issue in the UNFCCC negotiations.All of the countries analyzed have mentioned that implementing their INDCs depends on funding.It is encouraging to see that 55% of the analyzed countries present elaborate financial budgets, which detail allocations to different sectors and whether mitigation or adaptation actions are targeted.There is no indication of a common basis for the calculation of these costs and budgets in the INDCs, making it difficult to compare country efforts equitably and prioritize assistance.Furthermore, countries mostly do not report on what kind and amounts of funds are already being received.These countries need to explore ways to work together, to identify similar priority investment areasand develop coherent, realistic budgets to prove transparency, accountability andcommitment to regional development.
The majority of the countries do not specify any institutional set-up which could indicate poor institutional preparedness.The low priority given to wood fuel suggests that responsibility for managing wood fuelis mostly treated as side aspect of other environmental/energy concerns, such as development of electricity/petrol, nature protection, climate change, agriculture and/or timber production.
More support is needed for the collection, processing and publication of reliable data.With a rapidly changing context for wood-based biomass energy, policy makers need reliable baseline data to design appropriate measures.Such data includes wood availability and potential production; population growth, urbanization dynamics and consumers' fuel switching behavior.To improve wood energy data, databases should be established at regional and national levels.This can be achieved through establishing regular field surveys for wood energy, supply, demand and data analyses to monitor the changes over time (Sepp and Sepp 2014).
A crucial finding is that out of the 22 countries analyzed, 14 have submitted their NDCs to the UNFCCC website.It was noticed that these countries have re-submitted their INDCs as NDCs.There is no difference noted between the two documents.This attests to the difficulty of finding accurate data on wood fuel in SSA, also noted by Broadhead (FAO 2008).• "The use of improved cook stoves will make it possible to save the wood energy that is consumed (in comparison to traditional cook stoves)."• "Transformation of methane waste is an additional source of energy (as well as a new source of regular jobs) and the cities will be able to get rid of their wastes for the good of the population."• "The use of alternative energy sources (solar, biofuels etc.) makes it possible to reduce energy costs for homes and business, which increases their productivity" (Government of Burkina Faso 2015: 28).

Annex
"Developed and adopted are a number of policy and strategy documents relating to climate change".These include: • The National Strategy for implementing the Climate Change Convention adopted in 2001.There is no mention of whether these policies have been implemented.
• Deforestation The above policy is a prospective adaptation measure.
The above is due to low electrification rates and little to no use of renewable energy potentials.
There is mention of renewable energy, with the expressed intention of increasing exploitation.Some examples include: • Congo has developed an ambitious plan for development of hydropower, with the objective 2025 to ensure a supply of electricity to 85% hydroelectric and 15% by the gas.• Congo is also developing a solar electrification plan isolated villages.There is no mention of implementation measures.The above mitigation policies and measure have been mentioned in the INDC as supporting documents to the INDC policy actions, though there is no mention of whether these policies have been implemented or are in the process of being implemented.
The above-mentioned projects are mentioned as mitigation actions that are yet to be implemented.
• "Established in 2012 the National ProgramClimate Change (NCCP) to coordinate, propose and promote measures and strategies in the fight against climate change."(Government of Ivory Coast, 2015: 1).
There is no mention of implementation of this policy.
• "National Strategy Fight against Climate Change 2015-2020 was adopted in late 2014."(Government of Ivory Coast 2015: 1).There is no mention if these policies have been implemented.The above-mentioned policies and strategies are yet to be implemented as a means to mitigation contribution.• Not quantified.
The above is mentioned in the INDC, as a mitigation measure under the energy sector to reduce fossil-fuel consumption.This action is yet to be implemented.
• National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2013) (Republic of Namibia 2015:5) The above strategy and action plan covers the period 2013-2020.It does not discuss implementation.
• National Climate Change Committee (NCCC) (1999) The above policy is "implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) through the climate change unit (CCU) that was created to follow and monitor climate change projects" (Republic of Namibia 2015: 5).
"Namibia is presently developing its first Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) and is working on its National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to better guide the country on its way to mitigate and adapt to climate change."(Republic of Namibia 2015:5).
• Deforestation *Rwanda "The Rwandan forestry sector provides the main part of the primary energy needs (97% of cooking energy) to the population."(Republic of Rwanda 2015: 7) The above problem statement in the INDC shows that, since 2002, there has been a consistent gap in woodproduct supply and demand with deficits reaching 12 million cubic meters in 2009.This deficit shows how the forest sector is and likely to remain under pressure.
There is mention of renewable energy enhancements in Rwanda, of which they have various mitigation actions in place that are yet to be implemented.
Some of these actions include: • "Construction of hydro, solar power plants and methane to electricity power plants hence shifting from using fossil fuels for its electricity needs."• "Establish up to 100 solar PV minigrids in rural communities" (Republic of Rwanda 2015: 14).
• "Green Growth and Climate Resilience Strategy (2011) -it is on-going and will be "Partially or fully achieved by 2050.(Federal Government of Somalia, 2015: 11-12).
There are potential remedial actions, some of which have been indicated in the NAPA policy mentioned above, which are to overcome the deforestation and rangeland degradation.Some of these potential remedial actions are: • sustainable land management and food security through enhanced productivity • integrated water management • reducing risk among of vulnerable populations from natural disasters • the utilization of renewable energy resources such as solar, hydroelectric and wind; these sources were used in the past or are in use in Somalia and their potentials are well known • the implementation of the UN Security Council Resolution 2036(2012) that calls for international cooperation to ban illegal export of charcoal from Somalia and the various laws passed by the Somalia's authorities both federal and some states • the introduction and advocating the use of more efficient kilns for charcoal making and efficient stoves for local use, in order to reduce trees filling for local use • reforestation using regional nurseries and forest plantation using indigenous and introduced suitable tree species.
Such initiatives could reverse the deforestation and land degradation.
There is no mention of implementation of the policy in the INDC.There is no mention if these policies are being implemented.

• Forest degradation
• "The country is also in the process of developing

(
and Action Plan for Climate Change and Variability (SNPA/CCV 2004) has been developed.No mention of its implementation.• National Action Plan for the Environment (NEAP), central to identifying the country's vulnerability to the effects of Climate change (République du Congo Gouvernement 2015: 3).
its National Adaptation Plan (NAP) for long-term adaptation planning and mainstreaming of climate change into national development planning process" (Republic of Zambia 2015: 2).• "The development of the Seventh National Development Plan (SeNDP), 2017-2021) is also underway which will take into account climate change issues" (Republic of Zambia 2015: 2).• Reforestation • Deforestation Sources: country INDC/NDCs as listed in Box 1.An asterisk preceding the country name (*) indicates that the NDC was submitted to the UNFCCC website.These countries have re-submitted their INDCs as NDC, thus there are few differences between both documents.Only two countries have ratified their NDCs (Cameroon and Rwanda -Status May 2017).
sustainable, bio-based energy systems in the context of low emissions development strategies (van Pelt and Leisch 2016).It is therefore of interest for climate change policy development to understand how wood-based energy is addressed in the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of SSA countries.Are unsustainable practices recognized and targeted?Is sustainable wood energy part of the mix of solutions?And are indicators given to gauge success on both fronts?All 49 countries in SSA successfully submitted their INDCs 1 ahead of the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) facilitated in 2015 in Paris by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).Shortly after, the ratified agreements on INDCs became NDCs which were submitted to the NDC registry on the UNFCCC website 2 (Osman-Elasha et al. 2016 Most INDC/NDCs seem rooted in a variety of plans and policies (existing or in progress) such as national development plans, climate change response policies, low carbon development strategies, NAPs, National Action Program for Adaptation (NAPA), National Climate Change Action Plans and Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA).However, in the majority of countries (17 of 22), it is not apparent from the INDC/NDCs what progress has been made on the implementation of already adopted national policies and strategies.The remaining countries mention implementation of the policies at national level, but the extent to which this implementation has progressed remains unclear.
(Korhonen-Kurki et al. 2014the present analysis show an increasing trend toward introducing national policies with instruments related to climate-resilient development (81% of the countries, see Table1).Information provided by the countries highlights an increasing trend toward the mainstreaming of climate change into national and sectoral development priorities.This seems a positive development, as analysis from Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) countries shows that if countries do not have national 'ownership' of the policy process, national advances in REDD+ are limited(Korhonen-Kurki et al. 2014).

Table 1 . Continued continued on next page Country Mention of wood fuel and why it is viewed as a problem Alternative energy in relation to wood fuel problem; implemented or proposed Supporting national policies and strategy documents Indicators (action to be assessed) in relation to wood fuel
In view of these challenges, Zambia has in the recent past developed various climate change-related policies, strategies, projects and programs in response to climate change impacts".These include: • The National Policy on Environment (NPE, 2007) • The National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS, 2010) • National Forestry Policy of 2014 • National Energy Policy of 2008 • The National Agriculture Policy of 2014 • Transport Policy of 2002 • National Strategy for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+, 2015) • Second National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan "

Table 1 . Continued Table 2. Climate finance in the INDCs of the 22 countries investigated COUNTRY Sectors with specific budgets given in INDCs
The Cabinet of Namibia is the Government entity responsible for approving policies.The INDC will not be an exception to this rule and after the required technical validation, it will be officially endorsed by Cabinet before submission to the UNFCCC • The Climate Change Unit (CCU) b is supported directly by a formalized multi-sectoral National Climate Change Committee (NCCC) for the implementation and coordination of sector-specific and cross-sectoral activities while also providing advice and guidance on climate change issues • The National Planning Commission, which usually monitors implementation of development programs, can assist in monitoring of activities stemming from the INDC.• The private sector will be a privileged partner of government for implementing the INDC, either on their own or as funding partners.Rwanda has set up different bodies and operationalized institutional arrangements, namely the Green Economy Technical Coordinating Committee and the National Fund for Environment and Climate Change (FONERWA) as a national green fund to mobilize additional internal and external climate funds • Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA) c has been accredited as implementing entity for Adaptation Fund and Green Climate Fund (GCF) while Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) d has been nominated as national designated authority for GCF.These institutions are based on a sector-wide approach and work closely with development partners, civil society, academia and the private sector.

Table 3 .
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