Mugaddam, Foreign language teaching in Sudanese universities 130 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN SUDANESE UNIVERSITIES: GOALS, ATTITUDES, AND REALITY

The goals and means of language study continue in the very center of debates among specialists in language teaching/learning. Different views relating to language and its functions are reflected in two main approaches to language teaching/learning. On the one hand, language is considered to be principally instrumental, a means of communicating thought and information. One the other hand, language is viewed as an important element of human being’s thought processes, perceptions, and self-expressions; and as such, it is placed at the core of translingual and transcultural competence. This paper investigates the current situation of teaching/learning foreign languages in the Sudanese universities with special focus on the goals of teaching these languages and their role in students’ future. Goals of language teaching and students’ attitudes towards the process will be related to the job opportunities available for the students on graduation. Data for the paper have been collected using questionnaires and interviews administered to students and teachers from five language departments at Khartoum University: English, French, German, Russian, and Chinese. Questionnaires and interviews on language attitude will be administered among Four-year language majors representing the four departments. The central question the paper tries to answer is whether there is a realistic match between the goals of language teaching/learning set by policy makers and students’ interests and expectations. Results are expected to contribute to the efforts made to restructure language-in-education curriculum at university level in a way that addresses the expectations of both policy makers and

The Sudan can be divided very roughly into two regions, the North and the South.From the 7 th century onwards a process of arabiciation began in the Northern Sudan.Tribes from Arabia crossed to Egypt and later moved south along the Nile valley.They looked for better past rage for their animals-rich, slaves-and to escape from tax-collectors.The Arabs progressed peacefully, such as through intermarriage with indigenous groups, resulting in a widespread adoption of the Arabic language and culture.Religious schools, Khalwas, were established almost everywhere in the Northern part of the country.Students were taught Arabic language so as to be able to study the Quran.In the 1814, schools were already drawing students from a wide area in the Sudan; the teachers had many books on theology and law brought from Cairo or Mecca.
The status and use of Arabic was further enhanced when the Turko-Egyptian administration started employing local Sudanese in their administration.A system of religious courts, in which religious men and teachers were appointed, was also established.As a result, Arabic replaced Turkish as the language of government correspondence.This situation continued till 1898, when the British invaded Sudan, controlling the major parts of it with some pockets in the south and Darfur to be brought under control.With the beginning of the British administration, English language found its way into Sudan.This was promoted when the British decided to introduce government schools to provide modern education alongside with the Quranic models presented in the Khalwas.The teaching in the first British schools was in Arabic focusing on reading, writing, arithmetic, Arabic language, and English (to be taught in the higher classes).
In 1901, Gordon Memorial College was established to start as an elementary school and upgraded to secondary status later and finally became a university-the present University of Khartoum.Among the objectives set for the university were: 1. the creation of a native artisan class 2. a diffusion of education among the masses of the people to enable them to understand the basic elements of the government 3. the creation of a small administrative class who would ultimately find many minor posts; this group only was required to learn English It was decided that the medium of instruction at Gordon College (for the secondary level) should be English.As a consequence, English became very popular among the school boys who joined the college.The main objective was to enable the students to join the government administration, whereof English played a crucial role in promotion.In addition, knowledge of English was associated with social prestige, which encouraged students to be very keen to improve their proficiency in English.
In contrast with the North, where both Arabic and English were used in the administration, the South began with an administration wholly run in Arabic and gradually changed into English between 1904 and 1918.The process continued until 1940 when Arabic was abandoned.In 1913, only clerks with a good command of English could find job opportunities in the government in Bahr el Ghazal.In 1918, the British named English as the official language of correspondence in the South.
The role of English in the South was further enhanced by teaching it in schools, particularly at the intermediate level.
English remained the medium of instruction at school till 1965, when it was replaced with Arabic.The Arabicization of school education was an answer to the national feelings and enthusiasm following October revolution in 1964 (Hurries).In other words, Arabicization of education was merely a political and national issue rather than educational or linguistic.This national political feeling led to the replacement of English with Arabic as a medium of instruction at university level in 1990.
Recognizing the important role of English in the academic life of students, the Ministry of High education decided that English should be taught as a university required subject to all undergraduate students.Accordingly, specialized units were established in all universities throughout Sudan to teach English, mainly ESP.

METHOD
This study mainly depends on questionnaires and interviews in the process of data collection.The questionnaire consists of three sections.The first section was concerned with information on students departments as well as their academic background.The second consisted of general information questions, in which subjects were requested to answer with "yes,""no," or "I don't know."This is in addition to examining students' awareness of the necessity of learning a foreign language.The third section investigated specific learning preferences, where subjects were asked to answer with: 1. Strongly agree; 2. Slightly agree; 3. I don't know; 4.Disagree; and, 5. Strongly disagree.This paper focuses on the results obtained by the first and second sections of the questionnaire.Interviews with students, professors, and head departments at the faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum, were also conducted to supplement the data collected via the questionnaires or to verify them.Head departments were asked about the number of students enrolled in their departments and the criteria of selecting them.
As many as 160 students belonging to four language departments at the University of Khartoum have been employed to gather data on the reasons behind choosing languages as a program of study.The main objective here is to examine the attitudes and motivations the students have for learning a foreign language.Results are going to be compared with answers to questions regarding job opportunities available for the students on graduation.Subjects' responses will also be discussed in the light of the present job markets made available by the presence of a huge number of international companies and NGOs in the Sudan following the economic and political developments recently occurred in the country.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The growing concern with English in recent years led to the establishment of English Departments offering B.A. in English in almost all of the public and private universities all over the Sudan.Students' ultimate objective in the faculties of Arts and education in these universities is to learn English as a major subject.If they do not find a seat in one of language departments, the second option would be another foreign language or a social science such as mass communication, psychology, history, etc. Table1 below gives an approximate picture of English popularity in a number of Sudanese universities.It seems that the students are highly motivated to learn a foreign language in general and English in particular.Motivation has been identified as the learner's goal and beliefs with regard to learning a second language (Crooks and Shmidt, 1991).It is thought that students who are most successful when learning a foreign language are those who have motivation in learning that language.The new language policy of the Sudan endorsed by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed in Naivasha in 2005 announces English as an official language of the Sudan together with Arabic.This policy further enhances the role of English in the Sudan in general and in the southern region in particular.The agreement opens the door for English to play the role of the language of instruction at university level in both parts of the country.In fact, English is used as a medium of instruction in most of the schools and universities operating in the South.English is also used widely by the officials of the government of Southern Sudan, especially when taking to the international media.
The need for English in the Sudan following the new language policy has significantly increased due to the growing demand for people with good command of English.The United Nations' missions in the Sudan and other international organizations employ thousands of Sudanese in different jobs, in which a fair command of English is required.The UNAMIS and UNAMIS (Peace keeping forces in Darfur and Southern Sudan, respectively) have to deal with the local communities through translators of varying degrees of competence in English.The outbreak of war in Darfur paved the way for about 120 NGOs to come and work in relief activities in the region.This led to the creation of more job opportunities for individuals with some command in English.In such an encouraging environment, one expects more and more students to join the departments of English at different Sudanese universities to secure a good job in the near future.
Learning languages for practical reasons is evident among various communities in the Sudan, including the tightly closed language groups.Research on language use and attitude indicates that Arabic is the most important language in a variety of domains (Miller and Abu Manga, 1996, Mugaddam 2006a, Mugaddam, 2006b).In a more recent survey conducted in Tima villages in the Nuba Mountains (Mugaddam, forthcoming), we have found a high demand for English and Arabic among subjects of different age groups.The two languages were preferred for the significant role they play in people's life in the region (English as a medium of instruction at the village schools and Arabic as a language of wider communication in the area).As can be seen in the table, there is a growing interest in learning English and Arabic together with the ethnic language.The highest percentage was registered by Tima (43.25%), which suggests a strong desire among the Tima speech community to preserve their own language.This tendency increases as we move from the fifth first age group, the youngest, to the first age group, the oldest.In other words, older generation individuals within the community are very keen to maintain their own ethnic language, Tima.If we take the four patterns: Tima, Tima and Arabic, Tima and English, and Tima, Arabic & English, together, we will discover that more than 83% of the sample population believe that it is important to learn the three languages.A closer look at the table reveals that English was the least reported language the subjects wish to gain literacy.This observation is consistent across the different age groups, especially the young generation.This will be quite reasonable if we put into consideration the fact that English has already taken its place as the only medium of instruction at all of the schools in the villages.In addition, old generation individuals apparently have no urgent need for English as almost all of their everyday communication takes place in Tima and or Arabic, and, of course, they have no ambitions for better opportunities in the future job markets compared to youngsters.
The analysis also shows that a considerable portion of the sample population have emphasized the necessity for learning other languages besides Tima.About 57% of the subjects have reported that it is very important for them to learn Arabic and English.The two languages were reported mainly for the practical function they play in the subjects' everyday life.Socioeconomic and sociopolitical factors will further enhance this tendency as Tima youngsters will have no other alternative but to master the two languages (English and Arabic), should they wish to play a significant role in the social and economic activities in and outside the Sudan.As a direct consequence, the local language, Tima, get lost by younger generation in the long run.

Other foreign Languages at Sudanese Universities
Teaching languages rather than English at university level in Sudan is limited to very few universities.While French is taught in four universities: Khartoum University, Sudan University, Ahlia University, and Omdurman Islamic university, German, Chinese, and Russian are offered only by the University of Khartoum.These languages are very popular among students enrolled in the faculties of arts and education at the University.The students first look for a seat in a language department, and then consider other options.Students of foreign languages in the Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum, for instance, constitute about 30% of the total number of the faculty students (913 out of 2971).Table 2 gives the number of students in the five language departments at the Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum.Table 2 shows that a significant number of students in Khartoum University chose foreign languages as a field of study.English, Chinese, French, German, and Russian represent the most popular subjects among students of the Faculty of Arts.The departments are, in theory, given a free hand to decide on the number of students they would take in according to their capacity in terms of teaching staff, rooms, labs, and other teaching facilities.However, the number of students who applied for a seat in the five departments was almost double the actual number enrolled.The Department of Chinese, for instance, receives more than 250 applications from students wishing to join the department each year, of which only 60 are accepted.The head of the department has indicated that even the 60 students are accepted after continuous pressures from the faculty administration.The ideal number of students for the department, according to him, ranges from 20 to 30 as the teaching facilities (staff, rooms, other teaching aids, etc,) do not accommodate more than 30 students.
Chinese language was introduced as a subject of study at the faculty of arts in the early 1990, following the beginning of China's big investments in Sudan.China's transformation from an insular, agrarian society into a key force in the world economy forced the Chinese to send their companies to distant points in search of raw materials.Part of a broader push by china to expand trade and influence across Africa, its relationship with Sudan also shows China's intense willingness to do business wherever it is possible to secure oil.In line with this policy to spread China's influence around the world, the Chinese government encourages the use of Chinese language as an effective strategy (BBC report).By 2008, an estimated 120.000 students would travel to China to attend college both at graduate and undergraduate levels.Sudanese students have already taken their share in these Chinese government scholarships.Sudanese universities receive a number of scholarships for their potential staff to obtain MSc and PhD in different fields of study in China.

Language attitudes and reality
The central question in this regard is "why do students like to do foreign languages?"This question was put to 160 students from the five language departments in an attempt to link students' attitudes towards the languages they learn and the actual reality represented by the job opportunities available for them after graduation.Table 3 summarizes students' reasons for learning foreign languages.3, English was reported as important for several reasons: job opportunities (33.1%), communication with the world outside (20.6%), prestige (18.1%), and studies (16.2%).Most of the students believed that English would enable them to find a good job on graduation.The recent economic growth in the Sudan together with the signing of Comprehensive Peace Agreement paved the way for heavy foreign investments in the country.Companies and international organizations have come to the Sudan implementing development program, which created jobs for many Sudanese.The United Nations alone employs about 13.000 Sudanese in different jobs, including language assistants, translators, interpreters, security personnel, drivers, etc.It goes without saying that good command of English is one of the essential criteria for employing individuals in such posts.
I observed that many of our classmates and students who did English during their course of study at the university have got jobs in those NGOs or international companies operating in Khartoum or Darfur.Availability of jobs requiring good command of English is also made possible by the national companies who do business with foreigners.The spread of international and private schools in Khartoum and other urban centers in Sudan is another source of job opportunities for specialists in English language.Relatively good salaries are paid for teachers of English with a university degree and some experience in teaching English.
The analysis shows that economic factors played a crucial role in the growth of Chinese language in the Sudan.As the table displays, a good number of students have indicated that they would like to learn Chinese due to the increasing job opportunities provided via knowledge of the language.This is mainly because of the expansion of Chinese investments in the country.China invested more than 10 billion US dollars in the oil industry alone.The Sudan produces about 500.000barrels per day and has proven a reserve of at least 563 million barrels per day.It is this projected oil-boom led by Chinese firms that caught the eye of many Sudanese students to learn Chinese language.
China also pumped about 3.5 billion dollars for investments in the commercial exchange with Sudan.In addition, Chinese companies are building dams (e.g.Merowe), roads, bridges, electricity projects and investing heavily in agriculture.As a result, many jobs have been created for graduates of Chinese, even those with a fair knowledge of the language.We came to know that in some cases, students of Chinese at Khartoum University are offered jobs even before graduation.A professor of Chinese language at the department indicated that most of his students were motivated by money, which is clearly reflected in their proficiency in the language.To ensure a good proficiency in Chinese, the Department organizes a language competition in which students show their ability to express themselves in the language by various means.Joking, storytelling and singing are among the activities performed in the competition.Some of the students interviewed emphasized the importance of Chinese for their future careers, saying that a post in one of the Chinese companies is guaranteed as soon as they graduate As mentioned previously, the Chinese use language as a means of spreading their influence globally.The Chinese Embassy and other academic institutions constantly support the Department of Chinese language in all of its cultural and academic activities.Students are offered Scholarships, ranging from masters to short training courses in China on a regular basis.This support significantly contributes to the positive attitudes the students have towards Chinese language and culture.Sara, a fourth year student, described Chinese as a beautiful language, stressing a strong wish to visit China and read for her postgraduate studies there.Such an attitude has been found to be dominant among the students of Chinese who make serious efforts to improve their proficiency in the language so as to be able to pass the exams set as a basic criterion for getting a job in the future.The survey reported both instrumental and integrative motivation (Gardener and Lambert 1972) to learning Chinese language among students of Chinese at Khartoum University.Yet, instrumental motivation seems to be more prevalent as the data in the table suggest.
The analysis of the table also shows that French is favored considerably by students.Many students have indicated that they learn French because it was the language of prestige (40%) and some believed that it was a beautiful language.Very few subjects reported that they learned French for economic reasons (job opportunities).It is obvious that French has no practical function to play in the students' future life.In fact, most of those who did French as a major subject have ended up with jobs that have nothing to do with French.This is mainly because of the limited jobs offered for specialists in French language in Sudan.Some very skilled translators find good positions in the UN and other NGOs based in Khartoum and Darfur.Occasional opportunities for translating international conferences and symposiums held in Khartoum are also available for the lucky ones.Apart from this, it is very hard for students with degrees in French to find bread-winning posts in Sudan's job market.Many of the students interviewed indicated that they learn French because it was a beautiful language or that they would like to communicate with French speaking communities or for further studies in France.
Similar attitudes were found among some of our subjects towards Russian language.Although the departments of Russian language is joined by a quite good number of students every academic year, very few of them see some roles of the language in their economic life.The students believed that the language might be useful for postgraduate studies in the future.This view is featured by response such as "I may need the language for my further studies in Russia,""Russian helps me understand the works of Russian novelist,""Russian is a beautiful language."Students have also stressed the importance of the language for communicating with its speech communities.Some students have indicated that they chose Russian language as a field of study because they had no other choice.In other words, they did not find a place other language departments in the faculty, particularly English and Chinese.This attitude is strongly supported by the reality of job market in the Sudan, where very few opportunities are available for people with a good knowledge of Russian.
The survey also reported a growing interest in German language among the students under study.Since 1991, the Department of German language has been offering a B.A. program in German language.The department accepts 20 to 30 students annually after tough competition based on students' performance in English and Arabic.Students have several reasons for joining the department, among which is the fact that the top ones in the language performance are given a chance to visit Germany twice for short courses.Sending language students abroad was a long tradition in the Faculty of Arts.Unfortunately, the practice has stopped in recent years due to financial problems, except for the Department of German Language.Availability of job opportunities for those with excellent command of German is another important incentive for the students to do German language.Famous German car companies like Mercedes, Volkswagen, and Audi have their representatives in Khartoum, who urgently need translators from German to Arabic and Arabic to German to meet their German staffs' and local customers' needs.Other German and national companies doing business in Germany and the Sudan are also employing individuals with a good knowledge of German language.

Table 1 .
Number of English majors in some Sudanese universities University

Table 2 .
Language respondents wish to learn for practical reasons

Table 3 .
Number of language students at the Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum

Table 4 .
Reasons for learning a foreign language among Khartoum University students