A FURTHER RECORD OF LARGE INDIAN CIVET VIVERRA ZIBETHA LINNAEUS 1758 FROM ODISHA , INDIA

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a contentious issue and crop damage by wild animals is one of the major problems in Kerala. A study on human-wildlife conflict was conducted in Thrissur District, Kerala, India, from April 2009 to March 2012, to assess the crop damage by wild animals and economic loss incurred to the marginal farmers. Quadrats of 10 m x 10 m were taken randomly in the eight Forest Ranges. Crop damage incidences were recorded from quadrats in each month (n=36) and the species of crops damaged was also quantified. Economic loss was estimated by multiplying the quantity of crops damaged within the quadrats, with the market value of crops which was collected from the Farm Information Bureau, Kerala. Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) did the highest damage and the economic loss was estimated as Rs. 17,35,625./per annum, followed by wild pig (Sus scrofa) (Rs. 3,736/per ha per annum) and Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) (Rs. 615.47/per ha per annum). Feeding on tender coconuts (Cocos nucifera) by Malabar giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) was recorded from the Forest Ranges near the Wildlife Sanctuaries and the damage was Rs. 2247/per annum. Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) and other birds contributed to high economic loss in the paddy fields near Chulannur Peafowl Sanctuary, Kerala and the loss was Rs. 16,615.45/per ha. The study indicated that, crop damage by animals is causing severe economic loss to farmers in the District and mitigation measures namely solar electric fence, yellow plastic sheet fence and fish net fence are suggested.

The Indian Grey Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi is distributed almost throughout India (Prater 1965).It feeds on small mammals, birds, reptiles, fruits, eggs, and invertebrates; lives in burrows and breeds throughout the year (Prater 1965).Mongoose species are known to be vectors of the rabies virus (Rhabdoviridae) (Rabies Survey Report 2003).Though the occurrence of mongoose transmitted rabies has been reported from various countries, the occurrence of dog rabies has masked its importance (Everard and Everard 1988).The outbreak of rabies through Asian Mongoose Herpestes javanicus in Puerto Rico led to secondary transmission to dogs and other animals (Tierkel et al. 1952).Other species of Herpestidae like Yellow Mongoose Cynictis penicillata, Suricate Suricata suricatta, Small Grey Mongoose Myonax pulverulentus, and Genet Cat Geneta felina are reported to be important vectors of rabies virus in South Africa (Neitz and Marais 1932;Snyman 1940;Snyman and Thomas 1938).
Although the Indian Grey Mongoose is listed as a rabies virus vector in India, the Golden Jackal Canis aureus is known to be the principal wild species which transmits the virus (Fagan 1950).In Bangladesh, eight cases of human rabies due to mongoose-bite were reported (Rahman et al. 2007).Human rabies in northern India was studied by Ratho et al. (2001), reporting one case of death by the bite of a rabid mongoose.In a survey of incidence of rabies among wild animals, 92 cases of mongoose rabies were confirmed from wildlife parks and zoos in India (Rabies Survey Report 2003).
In this communication, we report cases of rabid mongoose in Edakkad, Kannur District, Kerala, based on data collected during our visits on June 18, 2010.This is the first report from India on a massive attack of rabid mongooses on humans in a village, and for which compensation was given by the Kerala Forest and Wildlife Department.There have been 21 cases of attacks on humans by rabid mongoose at Edakkad from March 2010 to June 2010.We visited the houses of two victims, Imtiyas (10, boy) and Shahana Sherin (9, girl).The boy had been bitten on the cheek, and the girl on the thigh.The locals said that mongooses were sighted frequently during that period in large numbers, approaching and attacking people without any provocation.Most of the bites were on legs.The increase in the numbers of mongoose and subsequent death of the animals were noticed by them and brought to the attention of the Forest Department.On post-mortem examination of the animals, rabies symptoms were detected.Some incidents of rabid mongoose attacking people were also reported in May 2009.
The Department took initiatives to make the locals aware of the rabies threat and provided assistance for antirabies vaccination.The compensation details available with the Thaliparamba Forest Range Office, Kannur Forest Division, revealed that 21 victims (43% female and 57% male) applied for compensation.A total amount of Rs. 77,000/-(rupees seventy seven thousand only) was claimed by the victims, and an amount of Rs. 30,375/-(rupees thirty thousand three hundred and seventy-five only) towards compensation was disbursed.Dhaulpur (=Dholpur) (26° 41' 59'' N; 77° 54' 00'' E; 177 m above msl) lies in the eastern corner of Rajasthan.It is known for its ravines extending all over the catchment of the Chambal river.The river and its banks are part of National Chambal Sanctuary and harbour some of the most endangered mammalian, avian, and reptilian fauna like the Ganges Dolphin Platanista gangetica, Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis, Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda, River Tern Sterna aurantia, River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii, Gharial Gavialis gangeticus, Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustris, and many species of endangered turtles.
The first author had sightings of the Indian Long-eared Hedgehog Hemiechinus collaris in agricultural fields on the outskirts of Dhaulpur city for three years, and in 2013,

INTRODUCTION
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) deals with crop damage by wild animals, cattle-lifting, human casualties and household damage (Conover, 2002).No perpetual solutions are available for mitigating human-wildlife conflict, because the relationships between humans and wildlife vary in each geographic region.Generally, verification of damage and ex-gratia schemes will minimize its severity.Inadequate remuneration and delay in processing the ex-gratia are the major difficulties faced worldwide.Crop damage by wild animals and inaccurate payment of ex-gratia are the serious problems faced by the marginal farmers in Kerala also.Previous studies reported that, the Kerala Forest Department disbursed only 8.2 % of the total ex-gratia claimed (Veeramani and Jayson, 1995).It negatively affected the attitude of farmers towards wildlife.This problem can be rectified by estimating the actual economic loss due to wild animals and providing sufficient amount of ex-gratia to them.Improvement in the distribution of ex-gratia is a significant factor for increasing the co-existence between humans and wildlife.So far, no study has been carried in Kerala to estimate the economic loss incurred by farmers due to wild animals.In this paper, an attempt was made to assess the crop damage by wild animals in Thrissur District (10° 46' to 10° 7' N and 75° 57' to 76° 55' E), Kerala, India with special reference to the economic loss incurred by the marginal farmers.

METHODOLOGY
For assessing the crop damage, permanent quadrats of 10 m x 10 m were randomly laid in the eight Forest Ranges (Jayson, 1999).Crop damage incidences were recorded from quadrats in each month (n=36) from April 2009 to March 2012, and the species of crops damaged was quantified.Enquires were also made among the farmers to confirm the crop raiding animals.Case studies were carried out for large animals, as they were not recorded from the quadrats.Consumption of paddy by Indian peafowls and other birds was assessed by enclosure experiment (Wilson et al., 2009).
Economic loss was estimated by multiplying the quantity of crops damaged within the quadrats, with the market value of crops which was collected from the Farm Information Bureau, Kerala.For estimating the potential loss of perennial crops, its economic life period was classified into immature phase and productive phase.The economic value of immature phase was considered as the market value of a new plant or a seed and the productive phase was estimated by multiplying the mean market value of the yield during the study period, with the overall yield during its economic life period.The perennial crops in the forest fringes are susceptible to damage during all the ages due to large animals.In order to quantify the loss, the productive phase was further classified into two age classes, i.e. primary stage (the period from initial stage of bearing to the middle age of its productive phase) and secondary stage (the period from the middle age of productive phase to the end of its economic life period).In the primary stage, the overall potential value of the perennial crop was considered and half portion of the overall potential value was used for the secondary stage.Mean yield per annum of the perennial crop was collected from Rubber Board, Kottayam, Kerala, Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasaragod, Kerala and Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala.The economic value of the plantain was estimated by multiplying the mean weight of the bunch of banana and its economic value.
Indian peafowl: -Extensive damage on paddy (47%) due to Indian peafowl and other birds was recorded in the fringe areas of Chulannur Peafowl Sanctuary, Kerala.The loss of paddy was estimated as Rs.16,615.45/perhectare.
Highest damage was reported from Athirapilly grama panchayath (30 %), followed by Panacherry (29.81%),Kodassery (27.53 %), Varandharapilly (12.22 %) and Puthur (0.31%) grama panchayaths.Asian elephants were recorded from all the Forest Ranges, except Wadakkancherry and Machad Forest Ranges.Solar electric fence is a good mitigation measure for all animals, if it is properly maintained (Webb et al., 2009).As the elephants are the seasonal crop raiders in the District, chilli-rope is a good shortterm control measure which was proved successful in the tropical areas (Chelliah et al., 2010;Govind and Jayson, 2013).Damage on coconuts by Malabar giant squirrel was recorded from the farms adjacent to Peechi-Vazhani and Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuaries.Watch and ward is a good remedy to prevent the entry of this species into the coconut farms.As it is an arboreal mammal, another successful solution is to remove the branches of the trees near the boundary.Wild pigs and Indian crested porcupines were reported from the fringe areas of all the Forest Ranges and nearby plantations.Yellow plastic sheet fence is an innovative control measure for these species, which was widely practiced in Pariyaram Forest Range.Damage due to bonnet macaques and sambar was negligibly reported.

CONCLUSIONS
In the present study Asian elephant contributed to the highest damage (Rs 17, 35,625/-per annum), followed by wild pig (Rs.3,736/-per ha per annum) and Indian crested porcupine (Rs.615.47/-per ha per annum).Feeding of Malabar giant squirrel on coconuts is reported for the first time and the damage was estimated as Rs.2247/-per annum.Indian peafowl and other birds consumed paddy worth Rs.16,615.45/perha near Chulannur Peafowl Sanctuary, Kerala.The study indicated that, crop damage by animals is causing severe economic loss to farmers in the District.
Human-wildlife conflict is an emerging concern all over the world.It is defined as, "when the needs and behaviour of wildlife impact negatively on the goals of humans, or when the goals of humans negatively impact the needs of wildlife" (IUCN World Parks Congress).Scarcity of resources is the ultimate reason for conflicts and it result in crop damage, cattle-lifting, human casualties and household damage (Conover, 2002).In Kerala, the interaction between humans and wildlife affects many lives and crop damage is the major problem.A study on human-wildlife conflict was carried out in Thrissur District (10 0 46' to 10 0 7'N & 75 0 57' to 76 0 55'E), central Kerala, from April 2009 to March 2012, to estimate the crop damage by wild herbivores.Quadrats of 10 m x 10 m were randomly taken in the eight Forest Ranges.Crop damage incidences were recorded from quadrats in each month (n=36) and the species of crops damaged was quantified.Enquires were also made among the farmers to confirm the crop raiding animals.Case studies were carried out for large herbivores, as they were not recorded from the quadrats.Seven species of wild animals namely Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), wild pig (Sus scrofa), Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica), Malabar giant squirrel (Ratufa indica), Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) were damaging the crops.Elephant made the highest crop loss to the farmers in the District.It damaged plantain (74.11%), arecanut (11.38%) and coconut tree (3.37%).Rubber (10.44%), nutmeg (0.14%), oil palm (0.18%) and cocoa (0.37%) were also destroyed.The encounters occurred in the immediate fringe areas of the forest (n=9) and up to 100 m from the forest boundary (n=9).Highest damage was reported from Pariyaram Forest Range, followed by Palapilly and Pattikkad Forest Ranges (Fig. 1).
Indian crested porcupine consumed coconuts (80.1%) and debarked the basal portion of the coconut trees and this behaviour was highest in Vellikulangara Forest Range (Fig. 3).Feeding on tender coconuts by Malabar giant squirrel was restricted to the Forest Ranges   near the Wildlife Sanctuaries.The mode of consumption of coconut was by making a hole into the endocarp after removing the mesocarp.
The opening had a circumference in the range of 19±4 cm (n=150).Consumption of coconuts was highest in the Peechi Forest Range (4.6±2.2 nuts/tree/month) followed by Machad (2±1.02nuts/tree/ month) and Palapilly (0.46±0.44 nuts/tree/month) Forest Ranges.Indian peafowl preferred paddy followed by vegetables and its presence in the crop field was reported only from Wadakkancherry Forest Range.Consumption of paddy was quantified as 1466.5±247.31kg/ha near Chulannur Peafowl Sanctuary, central Kerala.Solar electric fence is a good remedial measure for deterring the wild herbivores, if it is properly maintained.Yellow plastic sheet fence was an innovative control measure, which was evaluated and we got positive result against wild pig, sambar and Indian crested porcupine.Higher palatability and nutritive value are the main causes for preferring the cash crops by wild herbivores (Sukumar, 1985).The study indicated that crop damage by wild herbivores is causing severe economic loss to marginal farmers in central Kerala.

Fig. 1 .
Fig. 1.Economic loss due to wild pig in different Forest Ranges.

Fig. 2 .
Fig. 2. Economic loss due to Indian crested porcupine in different Forest Ranges.

Fig. 1 .
Fig. 1.Crops damaged by Asian elephants in different Forest Ranges of Thrissur District.

Table 1 .
Economic value of the damaged crops collected from the Farm Information Bureau, Kerala, India.

Table 2 .
Potential value of perennial crops based on the market price of commodities collected from the Farm Information Bureau, Kerala.