Teaching Zen's Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's "Ballad of the Absent Mare"

This paper describes how to teach Zen’s famous Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen’s song “Ballad of the Absent Mare.” It also explains how instructors can contextualize these pictures within the history of Buddhist visual culture and thereby frame Cohen’s adoption of them as a cowboy ballad motif. The essay begins by describing the metaphor of the ox. It then reviews three theories about the origin of the pictures, contextualizing them within the history of Buddhist visual culture. Finally, it provides a PowerPoint presentation that connects each of the Ten Oxherding Pictures to verses of Cohen’s song and offers comments for instructors’ use in class.

This paper describes how to teach Zen's famous Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's song "Ballad of the Absent Mare." It also explains how instructors can contextualize these pictures within the history of Buddhist visual culture and thereby frame Cohen's adoption of them as a cowboy ballad motif. The essay begins by describing the metaphor of the ox. It then reviews three theories about the origin of the pictures, contextualizing them within the history of Buddhist visual culture. Finally, it provides a PowerPoint presentation that connects each of the Ten Oxherding Pictures to verses of Cohen's song and offers comments for instructors' use in class.

Keywords: Zen; Ten Oxherding Pictures; Leonard Cohen; Buddhist iconography
Sight and sound are two elements employed as Zen skill-in-means, methods for awakening. This paper describes how to teach Zen's famous Ten Oxherding Pictures through the Leonard Cohen  song "Ballad of the Absent Mare." It also explains how instructors can contextualize these pictures within the history of Buddhist visual culture and thereby frame Cohen's adoption of the pictures into a cowboy ballad motif. The Ten Oxherding Pictures (十牛圖) were conceived and circulated in China during the Song Dynasty . Eventually carried to Korea and Japan, numerous versions of the pictures have come to exist, and many masters have commented on the work. It is thought that Chinese Chan master Kuoan Shiyuan, known as Kakuan in Japan, drew the first set of ten pictures in the twelfth century, Green: Teaching Zen's Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's "Ballad of the Absent Mare" 30 using images of a monk and an ox to depict stages of awakening according to Zen (Chinese: Chan). A modern version by Japanese woodblock artist Tomikichirō Tokuriki  became known to English readers through the wide-selling book compiled in the 1930s by Paul Reps, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. Reps's book allowed these visual images and their interpretations, which had been so influential in East Asia, to reach English-speaking artists and Zen practitioners, who in turn disseminated them in their own countries.
In Zen Flesh, Zen Bones, Reps suggests that the ox in the pictures signifies "the eternal principle of life, truth in action" (Reps 161,134). My own paper begins by describing the metaphor of the ox. It then reviews three theories about the origin of the pictures and contextualizes them within the history of Buddhist visual culture.
Finally, it provides a PowerPoint presentation that connects each of the Ten Oxherding Pictures to verses of Cohen's song and offers comments for instructors' use in class.

What is the ox metaphor?
There have been a number of suggestions about what the ox indicates in the pictures.
Three of the most prominent are: 1) Buddha Nature, 2) the Mind-Ground ( Chinese: xin di, Japanese: shinji, 心地, Sanskrit: citta-bhūmi), and 3) the Great Ultimate (Chinese: taiji, 太極) of the Yijing and Daoism. I would like to suggest that the true answer is both all of these and none of them. It is useful to explain the three theories to students, if only briefly.

Buddha Nature
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, Buddha Nature is the innate awakened state that we all possess but most have yet to discover. Accordingly, Buddhism is the way to find it. The idea of Buddha Nature became especially popular in parts of East Asia where Daoism had already been spreading its message that people are good and happy by nature. Indian Buddhism, on the other hand, via the Buddha's Four Noble Truths, holds that the basic activity of the human mind is either to desire to obtain something or to desire to get rid of something, and that this innate posture of discontent is the root of our suffering. Generally, East Asian Buddhism, including Zen, says that the most basic element of What are the origin of the ox as metaphor for attainment?
The origins of the metaphor are uncertain, but again there are three main suggestions.
These include: 1) the appropriation of the ox from Daoism, 2) Indian origins of the ox metaphor, and 3) The Eleven-Elephant Picture of Tibet. While scholars have suggested a combination of any two of these, once more the most complete answer could encompass all three.

Appropriation of the ox from Daoism
Laozi himself is often depicted riding an ox, an image representing that he has come to understand nature and absolute reality and exists in harmony with these. One of the most famous stories from Daoism that uses ox images in this way is Zhuangzi's "The Dexterous Butcher." In the story, a butcher develops perfect coordination with his subject, an ox. The butcher explains, "What I care about is the Way, which goes beyond skill. . . . Perception and understanding have come to a stop and spirit moves where it wants" (Watson 1968, 50-51). This description closely resembles the progress depicted in the Ten Oxherding Pictures. In Zhuangzi's story, the ox can be seen as representing one's own nature. By forgetting himself or his ego-self, the butcher is able to Green: Teaching Zen's Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's "Ballad of the Absent Mare" 33 act spontaneously by taking no deliberate action (i.e., by wuwei). Thereby, he comes into harmony with nature, which, like an ox, is usually seen as wild.
In the same way, the Ten Oxherding Pictures depict a monk's difficulties when trying the pull the ox by force (in picture 4), and ultimate success when both self and ox are forgotten (in picture 8).

Indian origins of the ox metaphor
According to this interpretation, the ox in the Ten Oxherding Pictures is taken directly from the famous "Parable of the Burning House" found in the third

The Eleven-Elephant Picture of Tibet
Although the words of Changqing Da'an and similar references from the time provide strong evidence that the Lotus Sūtra is the origin of the Ten Oxherding Pictures, we should also consider that Tibet has its own version of the Eleven-Elephant Picture. Its eleven stages are described as follows: 1) A monk (the meditator), holding a rope (mindfulness) (Tib denpa, Skt smṛ ti, Pali sati) in his left hand and a goad (full awareness) in his right, runs after an elephant led by a monkey. Here the meditator has no control over his mind.
2) He almost catches up with the elephant.
3) The monk throws a noose around the elephant's neck and it looks back; the mind is beginning to be restrained by mindfulness. The rabbit on the elephant's back represents torpor, which has by then become subtle.
Green: Teaching Zen's Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's "Ballad of the Absent Mare" 35 4) As the elephant (the mind) becomes more obedient, the rope (mindfulness) needs less pulling.
5) The elephant is being led by the rope and the hook, and the monkey follows behind. There is less restlessness now; mainly full awareness is used.
6) Both the animals follow behind and the monk does not have to look back (he focuses his attention continuously on his mind); the rabbit (subtle restlessness) has disappeared.
7) The elephant is left on its own, doing without the rope or hook; the monkey takes leave. Torpor and restlessness-both mildoccur only occasionally here.
8) The elephant, now completely white, follows behind the man; the mind is obedient and there is no torpor or restlessness, but some energy is still needed to concentrate.
9) The monk sits in meditation while the elephant sleeps at his feet; the mind is able to concentrate without effort for long periods of time and there is great joy and peace. The flying monk represents zest and lightness of the body.
10) The monk sits on the elephant; he now finds true calm (Tib zhine,

Contextualizing within Buddhist visual culture
We can also contextualize the Ten Oxherding Pictures within the broader context of Buddhist visual culture. Visual Culture is an academic field which, since its inception in the 1970s, has been drawing on the theories and methods of Art History, Archeology, Performance Studies, and other disciplines to understand the place of visualization and imagery in various settings. In locating the Ten Oxherding Pictures in the history of Buddhist images, we might begin with the earliest, that is, Indian Buddhist art.

Indian Buddhist Art and the Ten Oxherding Pictures
For the first several hundred years after his time, the Buddha's presence was only suggested in representations in images such as spoked wheels, the lion capital atop Aśoka's pillars, and the Bodhi Tree flanked by the nāga snake-like being Mucilinda, who is said in legend to be a protector of the Buddha. That is to say, the Buddha and the Dharma were first represented in aniconic imagery. We can consider the next development to be iconic images of Buddha, such as the seated figures familiar to us. In these representations he is often depicted as having some or all of the famous thirty-two marks of a Buddha, including long earlobes indicating his characteristic of always listening to suffering. In the Ten Oxherding Pictures, the Chinese Laughing Buddha in the tenth picture also has some of these marks. Many iconic images of the for reunion. Regardless of our interpretation of this part of the metaphor, certainly there is an element of the cowboy's love for the mare in the song. The opening phrase, "Say a prayer," sets a religious tone.
It is also important to note that according to Zen, and to Buddha Nature theory in Mahāyāna Buddhism, awakening is not a matter of training ourselves to become greater and thereby attain something we did not previously have. Instead, as in Daoism, it is innate and must be rediscovered like the ox and mare that have run away. In this stage, the aspirant becomes aware that there is awakening.
Slide 2 is as follows.

Discovering the Footprints
Along the riverbank under the trees, I discover footprints! Even under the fragrant grass I see his prints.
Deep in remote mountains they are found.
These traces no more can be hidden than one's nose, looking heavenward. Instructor's comments: In this picture the ox still has not been seen, but now there is phenomenal evidence that it exists and an apparent path to discovering it. In his comment, Kakuan assumes the voice of one at this level of attainment. He says, "Unless I discriminate, how will I perceive the true from the untrue?" Like the phenomena of the ox and mare's hoof prints, the aspirant mistakenly believes that discrimination and dualistic thinking are necessary for perceiving the true nature of reality. Cohen likens this perception to a dream, which is a common Buddhist simile. Kakuan says this perception takes place in deep mountains, a typical Daoist motif. Later in his song, Cohen also alludes to a mountain setting, referring to the high plateaus of the American western plains.
Slide 3 is as follows.
Green: Teaching Zen's Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's "Ballad of the Absent Mare" 45 3. Perceiving the Bull I hear the song of the nightingale.
The sun is warm, the wind is mild, willows are green along the shore, Here no bull can hide! What artist can draw that massive head, those majestic horns?
Comment: When one hears the voice, one can sense its source. As soon as the six senses merge, the gate is entered. Wherever one enters one sees the head of the bull! This unity is like salt in water, like color in dyestuff. The slightest thing is not apart from self.
The corresponding part of the song says: Then at home on a branch in the highest tree a songbird sings out so suddenly Ah the sun is warm and the soft winds ride Slide 4:

Catching the Bull
Green: Teaching Zen's Ten Oxherding Pictures through Leonard Cohen's "Ballad of the Absent Mare" 47 I seize him with a terrific struggle.
His great will and power are inexhaustible.
He charges to the high plateau far above the cloud-mists, On in an impenetrable ravine he stands.
Comment: He dwelt in the forest a long time, but I caught him today! Infatuation for scenery interferes with his direction. Longing for sweeter grass, he wanders away. His mind still is stubborn and unbridled. If I wish him to submit, I must raise my whip.
The corresponding section of "Ballad of the Absent Mare" says: And she comes to his hand but she's not really tame Instructor's comments: The title of this Picture, "Catching the Bull," was given by Kakuan and appears in the Chinese below the drawing. This is also the source for the Measuring with hand-beats the pulsating harmony, I direct the endless rhythm.
Whoever hears this melody will join me. Comment: All is one law, not two. We only make the bull a temporary subject.
It is as the relation of rabbit and trap, of fish and net. It is as gold and dross, or the moon emerging from a cloud. One path of clear light travels on throughout endless time.
The corresponding part of the song is: And he leans on her neck and he whispers low "Whither thou goest, I will go" And they turn as one and they head for the plain This heaven is so vast no message can stain it.
How may a snowflake exist in a raging fire?
Here are the footprints of the patriarchs. to have been misconceptions of the nature of reality, and vanish. Likewise, the verse is "empty" in that it is not provided.
We might also speculate that the idea behind this empty circle is the reason that the song is called "Ballad of the Absent Mare." Listeners assume that the mare is absent in the sense that she has run away. Too many steps have been taken returning to the root and the source.
Better to have been blind and deaf from the beginning! Dwelling in one's true abode, unconcerned with that without - The river flows tranquilly on and the flowers are red.
Comment: From the beginning, truth is clear. Poised in silence, I observe the forms of integration and disintegration. One who is not attached to "form" need not be "reformed." The water is emerald, the mountain is indigo, and I see that which is creating and that which is destroying.
The corresponding lines of the song are: Now the clasp of this union, who fastens it tight?
Who snaps it asunder the very next night?
Some say the rider, some say the mare Instructor's comments: Now that dualistic thinking is gone, and one realizes it was never separate since the beginning, we might wonder why it was necessary to go through all these steps. As Kakuan's verse says, "Better to have been blind and deaf from the beginning!" The idea of "returning to the origin" is also central to Daoism; we can see this throughout the Daodejing. For example, verse 16 of the Daodejing says, "All things alike become active. We then observe them return," 6 and verse 34 says, "All things return in this way and we do not know what governs this." 7 The uncertainty expressed in the Daodejing is close to Cohen's own sentiment: "Now the clasp of this union, who fastens it tight? Who snaps it asunder the very next and they're gone like the smoke and they're gone like this song. Instructor's comment: The content of the tenth picture is important in showing that a Bodhisattva returns to the ordinary world to help sentient beings on their own paths to realization. Likewise, in the song, the singer returns to ordinary life. This part of the ballad appears at first to be the most enigmatic once the content of the Ten Oxherding Pictures has been unpacked from the previous verses. Here we are suddenly introduced to two more characters that are neither the cowboy nor the mare, except perhaps metaphorically: Leonard, who has been revealed to be the one experiencing the vision of the cowboy and absent mare, and his darling, to whom it appears he has been relating all this. The verse suggests that the cowboy and the horse were images the singer/Cohen had imagined in clouds or smoke in a western sky, which of course is fitting for the cowboy ballad and for bringing Zen into an American context. It might be understood that the silhouette in the sky is "old" in that is has been playing out over and over for millennia in various forms-such as the Ten Oxherding Pictures, the "Ballad of the Absent Mare," and ordinary lives across continents.
Cohen's imagery in this final verse is very fitting to Zen in two ways. First, there is the idea that we experience only provisional reality, that only Buddha Nature is ultimately real and unchanging. Many Buddhist writings, including the Lotus Sūtra, describe our experience of provisional reality as being like clouds, smoke, bubbles, a mirage, or as Cohen put it earlier in his song, a dream. The second way the last verse fits with Zen is that it expresses non-attachment in the phrase "just let it go by," an idea that is actualized in the next phrase, "they're gone like the smoke and they're gone like this song." Again, while "they" seems to refer to the cowboy and the mare, it also implies all duality and the struggle to realize non-duality.
It is worth noting that in reference to the cowboy, the second line of the song calls the mare "his darling, his stray," whereas the end refers to "my darling." This