Stadiums and Arenas The New Revenue Source of Professional Football Clubs: The Economic Impact of Turkish Football Stadiums and Arenas in Turkey

Stadiums have recently become one of the most important issues in the economy of professional football clubs with its positive and negative effects. Football rapidly developing worldwide is social, cultural and economic phenomenon and is one of the world's most profitable sports. The transformation of an economics of billion dollars and the transformation of an industrial character from the beginning of the 1990s has caused all eyes to be turned over to the stadiums as a place of production of football over time. Stadiums in the process of industrial transformation of football have transformed into structures that live 365 days and generate significant monetary income, including non-football events. Now the conversion of soccer fans to a "consumer spectators" has led to a new comfort structure that will increase the added value of the clubs' stadiums per seat. In this way, the match day revenues, which will hold an important place in the monetary revenues of football, also started to increase its share in total revenues rapidly. Although this share has increased, because the seat capacity is fixed it has forced the clubs to become even more creative in these matters. Soccer clubs have started to design stadiums in this sense in a way that will make them more functional and monetary. Today, soccer stadiums have grown out of a simple structure and they have become the production center of industrial football and the most important source of income. The income generated by the stadiums is now approaching nearly 40 percent of European soccer revenue. The aim of the study is to examine economic and social efficiency of stadiums and arenas which is a significant source of revenue for professional football clubs and is to examine the economic effects of Turkish football stadiums and arenas in Turkey.


CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION IN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL CLUBS
This section will examine how globalization has differentiated human resources and marketing from corporate governance in order to survive in the competitive environment of professional football clubs. Globalization is not a new phenomenon. However, in the first quarter of the last century in the professional futbol, it quickly became an extraordinary situation developed and potentially. It is a face of everyday life for many sports fields. When we compare globalization with corporate governance, globalization in corporate governance is still at a stage of development. The vision of leading teams like European clubs Real Madrid and Manchester United was simple and always the same: "to be the best in the world" [5].
Nowadays football has become a professional money-making game all over the world beyond a game. The data show that professional clubs are the main tool in the global football sector, and in particular the European clubs account for 66% of all global revenues. The top 30 richest clubs are located in Europe and all of the European clubs account for about one-third of the development and a quarter of all global club revenues.
Especially football is considered as a game where people are excited, but at the same time football is a money game. The money has entered the game relatively recently, and has begun to gain a new structure with its introduction and influence. Here are some questions to answer. These are; Where is the money? How much is there? Who earns more and who earns less? In response to these questions, football has grown incredibly and globalized in recent years. Many sports clubs and leagues constitute a large sector that extends far beyond the national community to international audiences. This global growth has enabled the expansion of financial resources, especially in the professional market sector. This enlargement is shown in Figure 1 between 1992 and 2013, with the revenue growth of the British Premier League and the five major leagues of Europe (the Great Leagues of England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain). In this period, annual growth rate of 12,6% has been realized, which has increased by 12,2 billion dollars from approximately 1 billion dollars [6].
Professional sports clubs can not work with force. A number of factors, from insider (micro) and from outside (macro), may contribute to achieving the goals of the sports club, as well as preventing it from reaching the goals of the club. For this reason, it is very important for club managers to understand the business environment of professional clubs. In this context, micro environment (business environment) internal environment in terms of sports clubs; macro environment (market and sponsors) includes external environment. The internal environment of a sports club includes the factors that influence performance and are controlled by management within its boundaries. There are four internal environment for professional sports clubs. These are; • Club management • Club mission • Club norms and culture • Club sources All four internal environment are a separate research topic and are very important for the life of sports clubs. Some of the physical resources are stadiums and arenas. Because professional sports clubs always need physical resources to fulfill their missions. Sources in professional sports clubs include: • Human Resources: The expertise and skill levels of employees are crucial to achieving the goals of a professional sports club. • Financial Resources: The capital required to reach the goals of your professional sports club. • Physical Resources: The physical capacity of the professional sports club with its supporters is always in need of an adequate stadium an arena and their economic income.
Physical Activity Review vol. 6,2018 www.physactiv.eu _______________________________________________________________________________________ 216  The outdoor environment required for professional sports clubs includes the general environment known as the macro environment. The macro environment is the sector that does not have a direct impact on the sporting organizations but can influence the decisions taken for the club. The macro environment directly influences whether the club and the organization achieve their goals. Fans and members buy tickets and team log products. Clubs can not be professional sports clubs without fans.
There is always the need to supporters of the club to achieve success. It should not be forgotten that the enthusiastic solidarity of the fans as well as being exciting to cheer for the teams of fans is an intoxicating proud source [7].

PRODUCTION PLACE OF FOOTBALL STADIUMS AND ARENAS
The social, economic and historical developments of stadiums and arenas, and the effects of these developments on football are huge. With the establishment of UEFA in 1954, the concept of soccer started to change. It was an event that people enjoyed and eventually turned into a show business. In this process, football has become a product that markets other products and has begun to create very serious monetary value.
Since the beginning of the 1990's, an industrial character has been transformed into a multibillion dollar economy, all eyes have turned over stadiums over time as production places for football. In the industrial transformation process of soccer, stadiums are transformed into structures that live 365 days and generate significant monetary income, including non-football events. Now, the transformation of soccer fans into a "consumer-side" has led them to go to a new comfort structure, which will increase the added value of the stadiums per seat. That's how the match-day revenues, which will hold an important place in the monetary revenues of football, has started to increase its share in total revenues rapidly. Although this share is increasing, the constant seating capacity has forced the clubs to be even more creative in these situations. Soccer clubs have started to design stadiums in such a way that they will increase functionality and monetary gain [9].
The stadiums are the only place where the fans integrate with the clubs and act jointly. Stadiums are big construction projects. Professional football stadiums give fans a sense of pride and community. For this reason, there have been huge increases in stadium construction in recent years. Today, more detailed, modern, more seating areas, more private stadiums and VIP saloons are being produced to build more extensive stadiums and arenas. Unlike abstract economic development tools, stadiums and arenas are extremely tangible economic structures. These structures are monuments that tell you how to express sports centrality and richness through sports. The question is, whose assets represent their wealth? Cities? The clubs? Their government?
In Europe, most of the stadium ownership is local administration and public. According to a survey conducted by UEFA, about 65% of the 608 stadiums in Europe are in the possession of local authorities or public institutions in the region where the stadium is located. The remaining 35% have stadiums owned by professional European football clubs. As known due to legal reasons in Turkey there is no stadium in their ownerships of the clubs. All the stadiums are owned by the General Directorate of Sports. The clubs only receive stadium usage rights for 49 years and pay annual rent.
Of course emotional arguments for professional football are very important. Today, most municipalities have stopped discussing the stadium economy. From 2008 to 2010, three stadiums were built for the NFL teams. These are the Lucas Oil Stadium with a budget of $ 710 million in Indianapolis; Dallas AT & T Stadium with $ 1,1 billion budget; Metlife Stadium with $ 1,6 billion budget in New York City. The $ 1 billion budgeted Minneapolis Viking and the $ 1,3 billion budgeted Levi's Stadium in San Francisco are also under construction. Five other stadiums have been proposed. The estimated cost for these was $ 1,4 billion in Buffalo, $ 1 billion in Atlanta, $ 1 billion in San Diego, and $ 1,2 billion in two stadiums in Los Angeles. What kind of economic return can be expected from such a huge investment when the finishing cost is added to these five new football stadium projects at about $ 7 billion? the question first comes to mind. Scientific research into whether or not sports teams and facilities have a positive economic impact often shows the same end [10].
A well-managed stadium or arena can be used 250-300 nights a year under best conditions. So stadiums can be used not only for football matches but also for other events. The important question here is why is it so expensive to make these structures? The best answer to this question is Bill Palmer, the vice president of the company that has been building stadiums in the US since years. Palmer said, "Restaurants, cafeterias and bars have been added to the stadiums as a new area of use. So 20 years ago no one went to the bars in the stadiums. People would go to the game, watch and return to their homes. Now professional football clubs are trying to keep fans at stadiums to earn more money. They give as much as you can. So fans spend a lot more money in the stadium. Economically, the return is the amount of your expenditure and the amount of the taxon received from the expenditure. Already the stadium is an image in the city where the supporters are proud and present" [11].

_______________________________________________________________________________________ 218
The construction of the stadiums is based on the fact that the government subsidies and the financing of taxes paid by taxpayers. Once a stadium is built, the construction work is finished and the employment provided for the construction ends. After that, fans' spending and broadcasting rights to the professional club, stadium name rights and advertising revenue come into play. In addition, the fans who watch the matches use parking lots, eat at restaurants and buy drinks. All these expenditures generate income and employment within the general economic structure and money circulates in the economy. Economists call it the multiplier effect that spending a dollar will create more than one dollar in economic activity. For example, more than 3.5 million people came to Busch Stadium to watch the Major League Baseball competition for 2015. Except for the tickets that the participants of the competition, the economic impact of the supporters of the six baseball teams who bought the parking lot, food and drink was 343,9 million dollars. All extra expenses of the fans are new income and new tax [12].
This development may include apartments and office space as well as new restaurants, cafeterias and bars at the stadiums. Similarly, stadium construction may contribute to the economic development of these regions where the underdeveloped area has a low socio-economic structure. Professional football and new stadiums are proud of the city. People around the country watching new stadiums on television can be useful marketing tools in the image of cities. In addition to all these benefits, it should be recognized that the stadium costs are too high and the contribution of the economy is still debatable. Because professional football clubs are not willing to make stadiums because of the high costs.
Despite all these economic controversies, 86% of economists in the US are opposed to public support for professional sports stadiums of local and state governments. In a poll conducted in 2017, 83 percent of economists argued that "providing state support for stadium construction for professional sports teams is a high cost to taxpayers rather than any local economic benefit generated". In a study conducted by a sports economist Michael Leeds argued that in the case of a professional sports clubin Chicago (Cubs and White Sox (baseball), Bears (football), Bulls (basketball) and Blackhawks (hockey)) suddenly disappearing, economic impact on Chicago will be 1%. At the same time, Leeds suggests that a baseball team has the same economic impact as a medium-sized store [13].
Stadium construction projects also have a great influence. However, public expenditures for the construction of sports facilities increased during the 21st century, when discussions on this issue increased. Governments continue to support most of the cost of new construction or renovation in the economic downturn and believe that stadiums will have a significant economic impact. From professional leagues to colleges to city recreation facilities, it appears that the trend will continue. Much of the cost of new construction or renovation is subsidized. Those in support of subsidies believe that these new facilities will provide a substantial economic impact. They argue that the construction of these facilities will inject new spending into the local economy through fan support (ticket and other product revenues), job creation and tax revenues. Opponents, however, argue that a modest factory or a small research facility has as much or more economic impact [14].
The cost of setting up a new sports facility is always the most important challenge. In 2006, long before Russia had even bid for the right to host the 2018 World Cup, Zenit St Petersburg, one of Russia's biggest clubs, decided to build a new stadium. The much-loved, but outdated Petrovsky Stadium had been built in the 1920s. The new Zenit Arena was going to be Zenit St Petersburg's new fortress. The plan was that the club would move into their new home in December 2008. In mid-March 2017, the arena is still not finished. Back in 2006, at the start of the project, the estimated cost was 220 million dollars. Eleven years later the amount is 1,5 billion dollars, according to the government's own web page. This figure does not include the cost of infrastructure being built in relation to the stadium. A new road and metro station are also under construction. The total price tag could be over 3 billion dollars [15].
The expenditure of public money on sport facilities and events is an international phenomenon that occurs at every level of government. baseball stadium built since 2000 is $ 528 million. The average cost of a basketball or hockey arena built during this period is $ 276 million. Public money has typically covered about two-thirds of these costs [16]. One of the notable benefits of building a new stadium is the need for many different business lines during construction. Initially, many construction works are created. Once construction is completed, individuals will still be needed to operate the stadium. Like ticket sellers, VIP lounge attendants, maintenance personnel and security. Another benefit of stadiums is that fans and employees will spend money in the local environment. Tourists from outside the city to watch the games are a separate source of income. It is argued that these new spending are "multiplier effects." In other words, as income in society increases, it will continue to create more new spending and more jobs as a result [17].
The study performed by Xia Feng and Brad Humphreys examined the economic impact on residential housing values. The results show that sports facilities have a "significant positive effect on the value of surrounding houses and this positive effect decreases as the distance from the facilities increases". According to these findings, a new sports facility constructed in the core of a large city as part of an urban redevelopment program might possibly cause residential property values within one mile of the facility to increase hundreds of millions of dollars. A new sports facility constructed outside of the center of a large city and unrelated to an urban redevelopment program will cause residential property values around the facility to increase tens of millions of dollars [18]. This might help to explain why cities continue to subsidize sports facilities even when much academic research suggests that they result in little or no tangible economic benefits [14].
While many academic studies attempted to prove the impact of employment and tax revenues, non-material factors were often overlooked. Stadiums and arenas and professional clubs influence the quality of life of the community. This is often a source of pride. It is immaterial for society's visibility and the development of a city's image. However, measuring intangible benefits is extremely difficult. For this reason, many of the scientific studies have focused on the economic effects of stadiums.
The right to use for the city is widely available in sports clubs around the world. Although investment resources are covered by the budget of the community, the operating authority is entirely monopoly of the clubs. When evaluated in the urban context, stadium and arena planning, design and implementation, primarily to the public interest, to ensure the ownership of the city and the maximum use of the city, as well as business administration has left the sports clubs. Investing in a structure dedicated to soccer matches that take place only once every 15 days is quite costly for the clubs. Therefore, especially in most applications it is covered by the public investment budget resources in Turkey, but the company is allowed to completely monopolize authority of the clubs. While the club is not involved in any equipment and infrastructure costs, the stadium receives its own revenue.

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TURKISH FOOTBALL STADIUMS AND ARENAS IN TURKEY
Although there are many different types of sports facilities, the stadiums and arenas are the facilities that need to be examined economically. The current literature on the economic effects of sports facilities has focused entirely on stadiums, facilities built for hosting major events such as the Summer and Winter Olympic Games, and Olympic Villages.
When it is decided to make a stadium in a city, firstly it is necessary to evaluate the characteristics and characteristics of the city. For this reason, the features that need to be developed before construction can be classified under four headings. These are; • Financial resources and ownership for the construction of the stadium and infrastructure • Functionality of the stadium • Location selection for stadium • Spectator capacity When the economic effects of the stadiums and arenas are examined, two common features emerge. The first of these is the positive results of the economic effects of the stadium in the future; _______________________________________________________________________________________ 220 and the second is the provision of new tax revenues that will be generated by the economically spent money and the employment provided during construction. As known due to legal reasons in Turkey there is no stadium in their ownerships of the clubs. All the stadiums are owned by the General Directorate of Sports. The clubs only receive stadium usage rights for 49 years and pay annual rent. In this context, there are a total of 126 professional football clubs in four different professional football leagues in Turkey, as shown below. The Super League is the most economically developed, with the highest number of supporters and producing the greatest economic value (Figure 3).
As of the year 2012 in Turkey was built for professional football teams with a variety of spectator capacity stadium 82 are given in Table 1. After 2012, 25 new stadiums of various sizes have been started to be built in 23 cities during the last five years, provided that new stadiums are built for the land transfer. Within the scope of the protocols that the General Directorate of Sports has done with TOKI and municipalities, the construction of stadiums and arenas which have high value of the land, have completed their economic life and can not meet international standards have started. Within this scope, 52.000 spectators capacity Seyrantepe Stadium has been opened to service under the agreement with TOKI, which is based on sales and income sharing of Ali Sami Yen Stadium owned by General Directorate of Sports. And then 25.000 spectators capacity Teyfik Sırrı Gür Stadium has been opened in Mersin in Mediterranean Games [19].
All of the stadiums in Turkey are primarily funded by public then by the municipalities. Football is the most popular sport in Turkey as to be in the world. According to the law in our country only football is a professional sports branch. Therefore, when the sports facility is examined numerically in our country, there is a stadium with the maximum number of spectator capacities (Table 1). 14 stadiums, project and tender process completed by the Ministry of Youth and Sports (GSB), the Housing Development Administration (TOKI) and the budgets of the municipalities will be added to the remaining 6 stats. GSB has already provided 14 stadiums with the protocols it has already made with TOKI and municipalities. Statues were made with TOKI protocol to Afyonkarahisar, Antalya, Eskisehir, Gaziantep, Kocaeli, Malatya, Mersin, Sakarya, Samsun, Sivas and Trabzon with the protocol of municipal protocol to Bursa, Konya and Manisa. To gain the Turkish Football with the GSB and TOKI opportunities 6 new stadiums are budgeted at 820 million TL. Ankara, Elazıg, Erzincan, Hakkari and Sirnak-Cizre stadiums are in the project and Edirne stadium is in the tender stage. Edirne stadium with TOKI sources and other stadiums with the GSB budget will be offered to football fans. A budget of 500 million TL is foreseen for the new stadium, which is among the new stadium projects and planned to be replaced by the Ankara 19 May Stadium. The facility, planned as "National Teams Stadium", will be built according to the 7 days 24 hours system. As well as Ankara stadium with the highest budget, Sirnak-Cizre stadium with a budget of 15 million TL is the least budget to spend money. Elazıg and Erzincan 100 million, Hakkari 30 million and Edirne stadium will be built with a budget of 75 million pounds. GSB, TOKI and municipalities are participating in the construction of 11 stadium construction is under way. Adana, Batman, Corum, Diyarbakir, Giresun, Hatay, Izmir (2), Karaman, Manisa (Turgutlu), Ordu are being carried out to complete the statues. New stadiums will be built, and the stadium projects in the bidding phase, Turkey 2024 European Football Championship will reach a more advantageous position to host [21].   [22].
In Table 2, there are spectator capacities of the stadiums completed and continuing between 2013-2018, the costs calculated at the beginning of the project and the leagues operating as professional football in the city. In 25 stadiums, a total of 10 teams has generating economic activity in the Super League which is the most popular league in Turkey. The other teams consist of 1st League, 2nd League and 3rd League teams. For a total of 25 stadiums and arenas estimated 3,569 billion TL as public resources will be spent.
The inadequate post-organizational use of stadiums, especially for large organizations, and the unresolved problems created by their operating costs, indicate that pre-production decisions need to be well assessed. As an investment instrument, the urbanization effect of sports buildings can be classified as economic and non-economic effects. These effects are sometimes contested with each other, according to economic and social expectations. Surveys reveal that, in all circumstances, large sport structures for a city show the ability to be the driving force for urban development. The use of stadiums every day and day, such as mixed-use structures, is desirable and targeted [23].
From the 1980s to the early 1990s, the tendency for stadiums to be built outside the city seems to be dominant. This trend was supported at the same time by the view that increasing the capacity of spectators and the construction of large stadiums were functional and economically beneficial. Stadium construction outside the city reduced the cost of land, security of fanatic supporters, ease of crowd control, noise and removal of environmental pollution from the city reinforced this belief. Over time, however, this view weakened. Towards the end of the 1990s, the idea that stadiums were more suitable for urbanization began to gain strength. The transportation of stadiums outside the city and similar infrastructure services increase the costs of implementation and operation when considering the difficulties of integrating the city into existing infrastructure equipment, once or twice a week and in short use. On the other hand, there is no opportunity to benefit from the facilities provided by the stadium in the city.
Current research and applications support that stadiums are more appropriate to be located in the city center, and infrastructure expenditures will be less. The urban infrastructure required by the _______________________________________________________________________________________ 222 stadiums integrates with the existing system in such a way as to contribute positively to the daily life of the city, thus making it especially important to provide more efficient and widespread use of the transportation network.
Below are the locations of stadiums in Istanbul and London and the number of spectators.   When the London transport map is examined, it appears that all the stadiums are linked to the metro transport network designed for the residential units. Istanbul has been the scene of both right and wrong applications. The Atatürk Olympic Stadium has not been used effectively for many years because the necessary transportation services have not been provided. Not having enough settlements in the vicinity makes transportation investments inefficient, and the stadium's capacity of 80,000 people and design flaws make it difficult to use. A similar approach is also encountered in the application of ''Seyrantepe Urban Development Region'' in Istanbul. Türk Telekom Arena Stadium is at the center of Seyrantepe's urban development planning. However, since the purpose and scope of urban development can not be shared with the public, planning policies, design approaches and implementation targets are unknown. Within the last 5-10 years, urban changes are taking place in Kadıköy within the scope of reconstruction and restructuring of Sukru Saracoglu Stadium. The ease of transportation provided by the stadium on the urban transportation networks and the frequency and intensity of usage obtained with various cultural and commercial activities are positive contributions to the socio-cultural organization of the city. However, due to the shortage of stadium and the inadequacy of the area, pedestrian and vehicle traffic problems affect the daily life of the city negatively. No urban planning approach can explain the presence of 4 stadiums in a city that exceeds the capacity of 50,000 spectators, their serving only football, and the fact that urban infrastructure problems are entirely unsolvable.
The economic value of Turkish football has reached 2,3 billion TL in the 2016-2017 football season, despite the fact that the new stadiums in our country are located in the lower leagues, the lack of spectator capacity and the lack of economic value of the teams in these leagues. The biggest share here is the top professional football league called "Super League". There are significant increases in the stadiums 'success on the futbol, the number of spectators and the clubs' match-day revenues. Three elders (Fenarbahce, Besiktas, Galatasaray) earned 1,4 billion TL in the 2016-2017 season and a total of 3,8 billion TL in the last three football seasons [24]. 5.2 million people have watched super league games in the stadiums in the last two seasons in our country, the audience average of 8.395 in the 2015-2016 football season has increased to 8.940 with a slight increase (6%) in the 2016-2017 football season. Besiktas has been the team with the average audience of 30.446 with the average audience. Besiktas has become the most profitable team in the Super League with 521,158,000 TL. Vodafone Park has the highest number of spectators in the Super League, reaching 825.968. The average income of 14 teams outside of 4 elders (Besiktas, Galatasaray, Fenerbahce, Trabzon) has been 35,2 million TL [25].
Vodafone has pledged to pay a total of 145 million $ to Beşiktaş club for stadium name sponsorship (10+5 years) and Football A Team brest sponsorship (3+2 years). In 2015-2016 football season, signed between Fenerbahce and Ulker stadium name contract will continue for 10 years, the total price of the contract is 90 million dollars. The Galatasaray club earns6,5 million $ in revenue annually from the name sponsorship of the Turk Telekom Arena stadium, which started in the 2009-2010 football season and will last for 10 years. Apart from these, there are 4 clubs football team name sponsorship Çaykur Rize Sports, Medicana Sivasspor, Medipol Basaksehir FC, Atiker Konyaspor, 5 clubs (TurkishTelekom Arena, Vodafone Arena, Ulker Stadium Fenerbahce Sukru Saracoglu Sport Complex, Torku Arena, Didi Stadium) stadium name sponsorship (Ekolig, 2017). The match day revenues of the three elders who are the most winning clubs in the league make up 86,3% of total league revenues. Other 13 clubs except Galatasaray, Fenerbahce, Besiktas, Atiker Konya, Trabzon match day revenues vary between 258,000 and 4 million TL. However, in the next session 13 clubs except Galatasaray, Fenerbahce, Besiktas, Atiker Konya, Trabzon, match day revenues increased from 394,000 to 8,6 million TL.
According to the above given, if a stadium is built in a city, two main factors must be taken into account in deciding its size. The first one should be aimed at demographic qualities of the city and its interest in football and secondly it should be aimed at determining the areas of use of the stadium except football competitions and reducing the cost of these high cost structures and making them economically profitable.
In Turkey only some stadiums bring economic income on game day, others earn spiritual values that give qualities such as an image, pride, and community visibility to the cities where the economy has never been seen. So in Turkey stadiums can be made publicly owned and with the support of the public and it focuses on the spiritual gains of cities rather than the economic gains of stadiums and arenas.

CONCLUSION
Stadiums are places of production for both clubs and fans as well as for public. These are sports facilities with the highest planning, design, construction and post-construction operating costs. For this reason, it is necessary to pay special attention to the use of the infrastructure especially when determining the locations within the city. As discussed in many countries, stadium construction provides employment for many construction companies as well as sectoral experience. It is only necessary to open these multi-purpose uses according to the structural characteristics of the city where the costly sports facilities used for 17 weeks are saved from sovereignty. Stadiums have been proven to be the attraction of use, the power to create urban images, the trust that the fans give and the only common gathering place for fans. Everything continued as long as the rate of change in the world beyond the new modern and contemporary stadiums in Turkey will continue to be made with the support of the public.