Effects of teachers’ demographic factors towards workplace spirituality at secondary school level

Workplace spirituality is recognised as the inner state of individuals and an aspect of their working life. In the study reported on here we aimed to unearth the effects of teachers’ demographic factors (gender, age, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, designation, teaching experience, and district) towards workplace spirituality in secondary schools. This study was a descriptive research and a cross-sectional survey research design was applied. The participants were 3,050 secondary school teachers. The participants were selected using stratified proportionate random sampling. The Workplace Spirituality Scale (WPS) developed by Petchsawang and Duchon (2009) was used along with a list of demographic variables to meet the study objectives. Different statistical techniques ( t -test, mean, SD , one-way ANOVA and post hoc analysis) were applied for data analysis. The results indicate that teachers were satisfied and agreed with the practices of workplace spirituality in secondary schools. Moreover, the results reveal that the teachers’ demographic factors (gender, designation, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, teaching experience, and district) had significant effects on their workplace spirituality. From the results we recommend that the management of educational institutions should treat teachers equally and fairly without any discrimination for equal nurturing of workplace spirituality among teachers.


Introduction
The concepts of positive psychology, such as ethics, belief in a super force, integrity, mindfulness, trust, kindness, respect, sense of community and peace in organisations, inspiring employees, humanism, compassion, meaningful work and transcendence construct a new paradigm which is called workplace spirituality. Spirituality in the workplace is recognised as an aspect of the individual's work life, or the individual's inner state, which is developed and measured by performing meaningful work in the workplace (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000;Petchsawang & Duchon, 2009).
This emerging concept of workplace spirituality holds a very important place in modern organisations. The concept of spirituality, previously prohibited in organisations, is now gradually being researched and accepted in modern organisations. Therefore, the progressive trend of workplace spirituality in management and behavioural sciences is becoming an important aspect for the success of organisations. Moreover, its worth in other than management and behavioural sciences is gradually increasing regardless of prevailing criticism and hesitations (Azad-Marzabadi, Hoshmandja & Poorkhalil, 2012).
Therefore, the state of workplace spirituality in organisations has been contemplated by researchers, supervisors and administrators for the satisfaction and motivation of workers and customers (Rastgar, Jangholi, Heidari & Heidarina, 2012). The promotion of workplace spirituality and an increasing self-respect and confidence among employees lead to increased performance, satisfaction, commitment and efficiency (Karakas, 2010).
Currently, the necessity of research on workplace spirituality in organisations is increasing due to its emerging importance. Workplace spirituality creates stability and loyalty in workers and increases confidence, interest and enthusiasm (Beikzad, Yazdani & Hamdollahi, 2011). In addition, the role of spirituality in the workplace is contributory in that it provides civilization for society, perfection for organisations and obligations in the working environment (Mitroff, 2003).
The discrimination among teachers with regard to their demographic differences creates disparity in their workplace spirituality practices. Breytenbach (2016) states that workers' demographic have a significant effect on their level of workplace spirituality. The main focus of this study was on the current status of workplace spirituality among teachers with regard to their demographic factors.

Literature Review
The word "spirituality" derives from the Latin word "spiritus" that is about the metaphysical aspect of things like breath, soul and air. Spiritus is regarded as a fundamental aspect of living things that provides energy and spirit to the physical body. This means that spirit is an energy, drive and power that inhabits individuals in life when they are breathing and wakeful. Spirituality relates to consciousness, meaningful work, teamwork, mindfulness, thinking processes and connection with a super force and ultimate reality (Karakas, 2010). Zinnbauer, Pargament and Scott (1999) define spirituality as an energy and a fascinating power of life, which encourages an individual to a particular ending and a self-transcendent purpose.
The term "workplace spirituality" has different meanings in different academic disciplines, which makes is challenging to find a comprehensive definition (Tischler, Biberman & McKeage, 2002). Some scholars state that workplace spirituality is the core component of organisational culture (Daniel, 2010;Leigh, 1997). Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) describe workplace spirituality as a part of organisational culture which builds and increases workers' sense of transcendence, feelings of happiness, engagement with co-workers and work performance through organisational standards and ethics. Kolodinsky, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2008) state that workplace spirituality can be categorised on three levels, namely, individual, organisational and societal level. Individual level workplace spirituality relates to personal spiritual ideas, feelings, beliefs and values in a specific workplace. Organisational level workplace spirituality relates to spiritual ideas, feelings, beliefs and values of individuals in an organisation. Societal level workplace spirituality relates to spiritual thoughts, feelings, beliefs and values of individuals about relationships with other members of society. Mitroff and Denton (1999a) state that workplace spirituality is related to increasing meaningful work among employees, building teamwork, and creates balance between values of employees and organisational values. Petchsawang and Duchon (2009) describe workplace spirituality as building compassion with co-workers, exercising a state of mindfulness for increasing meaningful work that facilitates transcendence. Gotsis and Kortezi (2008) describe workplace spirituality as a training of mindfulness, individual perfection, transcendence and gladness among workers that is recognised in several academic disciplines. Breytenbach (2016) investigated the effect of several demographic variables on levels of individual spirituality, organisational spirituality and spirit at work. She found that gender and ethnicity had an effect on individual spirituality, that gender and organisational environment had an effect on organisational spirituality, and that experience and religious attachment had an effect on spirit at work. Furthermore, Van der Walt and De Klerk (2015) found, through a quantitative approach and cross-sectional survey design, that several respondents' demographic variables have an effect on personal and organisational spirituality. Moreover, they found that several diversity factors (education, gender, religious affiliation) within a multicultural environment and across organisational cultures and contexts impacted personal and organisational spirituality. Saks (2011) states that workplace spirituality is described differently by different scholars according to their context and culture. The experts on this notion connect it with various dimensions and concepts such as connectedness with society, organisation and oneself (Mitroff & Denton, 1999b), inner state of individual life, meaningful and purposeful work, teamwork (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000), personal fulfilment, organisational values, inner self, and engagement with organisation (Pawar, 2009). Likewise, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) indicate organisational beliefs, organisational values and connectedness. Furthermore, Liu and Robertson (2011) propose the dimensions of workplace spirituality as interconnection with a super force, co-workers, environment, and nature. However, according to literature, the common dimensions of workplace spirituality are meaningful work, compassion, inner state, mindfulness, sense of community, and transcendence. The focus of this study was on the dimensions of workplace spirituality projected by Petchsawang and Duchon (2009), namely, transcendence, compassion, meaningful work, and mindfulness.

Compassion
Compassion is a feeling developed for others: care, sympathy, support and understanding their suffering to provide a solution or relief. It is developing awareness and a desire to do good for others (Petchsawang & Duchon, 2009). Barsade and O'Neill (2014) surveyed around 3,200 employees from different organisations. The findings show that more compassion experienced within a workplace resulted in improved performance, commitment, accountability, overall job satisfaction, engagement, and teamwork which ultimately reduced stress, absenteeism and conflict in the workplace.

Mindfulness
Mindfulness is a state of being conscious of happenings around us and to be aware at all times.
A mindful person is free from distractions and is a person who lives in the present and does not wander about past or future predicaments (Petchsawang & Duchon, 2009). Mindfulness is a friendly attention and mental presence in the workplace. Mindfulness improves attentional stability, attentional control, attentional efficiency, cognitive capacity, cognitive flexibility, positive emotions, hope, confidence, and self-regulation of behaviour (Good, Lyddy, Glomb, Bono, Brown, Duffy, Baer, Brewer & Lazar, 2015).

Meaningful work
Meaningful work is a sense of feeling that the person is working on something that is aligned with what he or she wants to achieve in life. Meaningful work gives a sense of joy, happiness and excitement. It is a means of expressing one's own inner self at work (Petchsawang & Duchon, 2009). Meaningful work contributes towards individual and organisational purposefulness, commitment, independence, control, engagement, accomplishment, proficiency, growth, mastery, self-realisation, and achievement in the workplace (Fairlie, 2011).

Transcendence
Transcendence explains a sense of connection with a higher power that gives one experiences of joy or bliss at work. Transcendence is a spiritual term and not a religious term that includes connectedness to God (Petchsawang & Duchon, 2009). Transcendence contributes towards widespread connectedness, enjoyment, limitless purpose, unity among individuals, and emotional closeness of employees in the workplace (Lace, Haeberlein & Handal, 2017). (2000) indicate that organisations work according to doctrines of rational systems which create a situation for nurturing workplace spirituality. Workplace spirituality implies a humanistic approach in organisations. The humanistic approach had its origins in humanistic psychology (McGuire, Cross & O'Donnell, 2005). Alvesson (1982) states that the humanistic approach in organisations enhances workers' personal improvement and selfactualisation. He termed this phenomenon as "humanistic organization theory", which highlights the use of workers' different motivational strategies and personal development as a method of organisational management. This concept emphasises humanistic values such as confidence, a sense of community, unity, teamwork, selfrealisation and development of organisational goals. Melé (2003) states that organisational theory focuses on managerial aspects of organisations such as planning, organising, leading and controlling. However, he states that all managerial functions are performed by human resources for enhancement of individuals' as well as organisational performance. The presence of these humanistic elements creates the culture of the organisation. Scholars state that organisational culture relates to values, ethics, beliefs and informal practices, like trust, kindness, respect, sense of community, humanism, compassion and integrity among employees of an organisation, which creates an organisational culture (Barney, 1986;Schein, 1984). Researchers also mention that workplace spirituality is a component of organisational culture. Furthermore, it has been claimed that workplace spirituality is about establishing programmes and policies in organisations with the purpose of improving organisational values such as engagement, unity, integrity, fairness, teamwork, employees' commitment, confidence and fulfilment (Daniel, 2010;Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003;Leigh, 1997).

Ashmos and Duchon
Secondary school teachers' demographics (gender, age, nature of job, qualification, marital status, designation, experience and constituency [district]) differ. Due to these differences, they are treated differently and unfairly in the workplace and as a result their experiences of workplace spirituality in schools differ. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of teachers' demographics (gender, age, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, designation, teaching experience, and district) on workplace spirituality in secondary schools. The objectives of the study were to 1) investigate the status of workplace spirituality in secondary schools 2) explore the effects of teachers' demographic factors (gender, age, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, designation, teaching experience, and district) on workplace spirituality in secondary schools.

Research Design
The study was quantitative research based on a positivist research paradigm. A cross-sectional survey design was used to investigate the effects of teachers' demographic factors on workplace spirituality in secondary schools.

Sampling
The participants in this study were teachers from secondary schools. There are a total of 36 districts in the Punjab province, Pakistan. The sample was 3,860 (1,880 male and 1,980 female) teachers. This sample was selected from 38,600 teachers from nine randomly selected districts. Ten teachers from each of 386 schools from nine districts were selected as participants. The sample was selected through stratified proportionate random sampling. We listed nine strata/subgroups on the basis of nine selected districts. Ten per cent proportionate samples were randomly taken from each stratum.

Instrument and Procedure
Petchsawang and Duchon's (2009) WPS was used for data collection. This scale comprises four dimensions (mindfulness, compassion, transcendence and meaningful work). The questionnaire consisted of two sub-sections: the first section of the questionnaire covered the participants' demographic information and the second section covered the 22 WPS statements. Respondents responded to these statements on a 1 to 6 level Likert scale indicating the status of opinion as (strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, agree, and strongly agree). A pilot study was conducted to validate the scale. Factor analysis was applied using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 22 AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures) to confirm the dimensionality, reliability and validity of Petchsawang and Duchon's (2009) WPS on a sample of 400 public school teachers. The validated instrument was used to collect data from the participants. Data collection was done personally and with the assistance of the administration of the School Education Department to ensure the maximum response rate. Three thousand and fifty questionnaires were returned, which was a response rate of 79%.

Data Analysis
The data were analysed using SPSS 22 software as well as t-tests, mean, standard deviation, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post hoc analysis statistical techniques were used.

Results
The data analysis, results and findings of the study are discussed in this section.    The results reveal that three dimensions of workplace spirituality recorded above the scale of somewhat agree (4.0) and below the scale of agree (5.0). Only mindfulness scored below the scale of somewhat agree (4.0). It reveals that teachers were more satisfied and agreed with the dimension of compassion compared to mindfulness, meaningful work and transcendence. The second and third important dimensions in workplace spirituality according to the participants were meaningful work and transcendence respectively. Mindfulness was considered the least important dimension of workplace spirituality. An independent sample t-test was applied to determine the difference in the perceptions of male and female teachers about workplace spirituality. The results in Table 3 show that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of male and female teachers about workplace spirituality. It was concluded that teachers from the different genders practiced workplace spirituality differently. An independent sample t-test was applied to determine contract and permanent teachers' perceptions on workplace spirituality. The results in Table 4 show that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of contract and permanent teachers on workplace spirituality. It was concluded that contract and permanent teachers practiced workplace spirituality differently. An independent sample t-test was applied to determine married and unmarried teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality. The results in Table 5 show that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of married and unmarried teachers on workplace spirituality. It was concluded that married and unmarried teachers practiced workplace spirituality differently. A one-way analysis of variance was applied to determine teachers' perceptions on workplace spirituality in terms of age. The analysis revealed that there was no significant difference in teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality in terms of their age (see Table 6). Furthermore, a post hoc analysis was also performed to determine whether there was a difference between the two groups. The results of the post hoc analysis indicate that there was no significant difference in the teacher's perceptions with regard to the age groups (21-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60 years). This implies that teachers from all age groups thought similarly about workplace spirituality. A one-way analysis of variance was applied to determine the teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality in terms of academic qualifications. The analysis revealed that there was a significant difference in teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality in terms of their academic qualifications (see Table 7). Furthermore, a post hoc analysis was also performed. The results of the post hoc analysis indicate that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers with regard to academic qualifications (Matric/FA, BA, MA/MSc and MPhil/PhD). It was concluded that the teachers with different academic qualifications thought differently about workplace spirituality. A one-way analysis of variance was applied to determine the teachers' perceptions on workplace spirituality in terms of designation. The analysis reveals that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers about workplace spirituality in terms of their designation (see Table 8). Furthermore, a post hoc analysis was also performed to determine further differences between the two groups. The results of a post hoc analysis indicate that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers in the designation of PST/ESE and EST/SESE. It was concluded that the teachers from different designations thought differently about workplace spirituality. A one-way analysis of variance was applied to determine the teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality in terms of teaching experience. The analysis reveals that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers about workplace spirituality in terms of their teaching experience (see Table 9). Furthermore, a post hoc analysis was performed to further determine any differences between the groups. The results of post hoc analysis indicate that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers with different years of teaching experience (0-5, 5-10, 10-20, and above 20 years). It was concluded that teachers with different years of teaching experience thought differently about workplace spirituality. A one-way analysis of variance was applied to determine the teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality in terms of district. The analysis reveals that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers about workplace spirituality in terms of their districts (see Table 10). Furthermore, a post hoc analysis was performed to determine any further differences between the two groups. The results of the post hoc analysis indicate that there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers based on their district (Okara, T.T. Singh, Pakpatan, Bahawalnagar, Rawalpindi, Vehari, Sheikhopura, Bahawalpur, and Lahore). It was concluded that the teachers from different districts thought differently about workplace spirituality.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of teachers' demographic factors (gender, age, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, designation, teaching experience, and district) on their perceptions of workplace spirituality in secondary schools. The results indicate that there were significant differences in the perceptions of teachers regarding workplace spirituality in terms of their demographic variables. It was indicated that demographic variables gender, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, designation, teaching experience, and district significantly affected individuals' perceptions about workplace spirituality. These results support the findings of Kinjerski and Skrypnek (2006) who found that there was a significant difference in teachers' perceptions about workplace spirituality related to their demographic variables. Likewise, Cavanagh and Bandsuch (2002) found that there was a significant difference in employees' perceptions about workplace spirituality related to their demographic variables. Kerwar and Jaiswal (2018) also found that participants' demographics significantly influenced their perceptions on workplace spirituality. Likewise, Breytenbach (2016) conducted a study in South Africa and determined that several respondent demographic variables impacted levels of individual spirituality, organisational spirituality and spirit at work. Furthermore, Van der Walt and De Klerk (2015) conducted a study in African organisations and found that several respondent demographic variables effected personal and organisational spirituality.
Contrary to this, Chakraborty, Kurien, Singh, Athreya, Maira, Aga, Gupta and Khandwalla (2004) found no significant differences in employees' perceptions about workplace spirituality related to their demographic variables in terms of compassion, mindfulness, meaningful work and transcendence. Thompson (2000) found that there were no significant differences in the perceptions of teachers about workplace spirituality related to their demographic variables. Furthermore, it was identified that respondents' demographic factors had no effect on perceived status of workplace spirituality.
On the whole, the results of our study seem to suggest that the participants (teachers in secondary schools in Punjab, Pakistan) were treated differently in the workplace based on their demographics. This resulted in them perceiving workplace spirituality differently.

Conclusion and Further Suggestions
The results of this study indicate that there were significant differences in the perceptions of teachers regarding workplace spirituality in terms of their demographic variables (gender, nature of job, academic qualification, marital status, designation, teaching experience, and district). Therefore, it can be concluded that demographic variables significantly influence individual perceptions about workplace spirituality. The reason for this is that teachers were probably treated differently in the workplace resulting in their different perceptions of workplace spirituality in public secondary schools in Punjab, Pakistan.
We recommended that a school's administration should create an environment in which teachers of all demographic statuses are treated equally and fairly to minimises discrimination among secondary school teachers in order to result in equal development of workplace spirituality. Furthermore, teachers should share their daily experiences and practices of compassion, mindfulness, meaningful work and transcendence in their schools to develop workplace spirituality. We suggested that further studies on workplace spirituality with different organisational variables should be conducted. Future studies could also be conducted at different levels of educational organisations and in different organisations. Finally, we recommended that the management of educational institutions should treat teachers equally and fairly without any discrimination in order to build workplace spirituality among teachers.

Authors' Contributions
Muhammad Aslam conducted the research reported on here under the supervision of Professor (Prof.) Doctor (Dr) Abid Hussain Chaudhary. Sohail Mazhar and Muhammad Sarwar contributed in data collection, statistical analysis and writing of article. All four authors reviewed the final manuscript.