Students’ Translation Techniques and Grammatical Errors in Translating Narrative Text

___________________________________________________________________ This research attempted to find out the translation techniques and grammatical errors in students’ Indonesian-English text translation. The objectives of this research were to describe the choice of translation techniques and grammatical errors of the students’ translation of a narrative text. This research used descriptive qualitative method. The translation techniques analysis was done by using Molina and Albir's (2002) classification of translation techniques while grammatical errors of the students’ translation were analyzed using the guide for correcting writing errors by Betty Azar (1941). The translation technique analysis was done by comparing the students’ translation work with the source text of a narrative entitled Lari Kepagian then grammatical errors analysis was done to find out their errors in the use of grammatical rules. The result of the study found that there were 3012 data of translation techniques and 429 grammatical errors. The data showed that the most used translation techniques were literal translation technique (30.1%) and modulation technique (22.6%) and the most grammatical errors made was capitalization (18.2%) and verb tense (16.6%). The most used translation technique that resulted in most grammatical errors was modulation technique (17%) in the translation done by 24 students.


FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The data analyzed in this study were the translation techniques and grammatical errors found in the translated short story written by the fifth semester of English Education Program in Indonesian-English Translation Class of English Department 2017/2018 which had taken a part of their learning experience in translating text from Indonesian into English.There were 24 students had made their own translation by their self as the subjects of the research.After the data were identified, it was found that the majority of the subjects made errors in the use of grammar (subject, verb, tenses and pronoun) in their letters.The names of the applicants were pseudonyms.Below are the examples of the errors analysis of motivation letters.
This part shows the result of data analysis, which is expected to be the answer to problems in this research.This analysis will answer the question of types of translation techniques and grammatical errors aspects which are occurred in Indonesian-English Class of English Department 2017/2018.The number of translation techniques founded can be shown in the table below: The table 1 above was the result of the counting the number of all the translation techniques analyzed that was founded.The most used translation technique by the students is literal translation technique (30%), followed by modulation technique (22.6%) and the others.The lowest used translation technique is particular/generalization technique (1.3%).The table 1 above was the result of the counting the number of all the grammatical errors analysis that was founded.The most used translation technique by the students is capitalization error (18.2%), followed by verb tense error (16.6%) and the others.The lowest occurred grammatical error is run on-sentence (1.2%).
The combination of the translation techniques and students' grammatical errors might not be simple or so easy correlated.Therefore, the fact was one of translation technique could have many counts of grammatical errors more than its translation technique count.In other words, one translation technique could have many grammatical errors.
The followings are the detailed description of each translation technique found in the students translation.The detailed description is also provided with some examples.

Literal Translation
According to Molina and Albir's (2002), the literal translation is a technique that the translator translates a word or an expression in SL by word for word.There were 905 times or about 30.05% of literal translation was found in analyzing the translation technique.An example of the literal translation data is presented below: (1.) Student number 4, datum number 101 ST : Ia berlari pagi saat orang-orang masih tertidur lelap.TT : He ran early while the people were still slept soundly.Reconstruction : He ran early when the people still slept soundly.
The sentence in ST above was translated using the word by word techniques into TT.The translator translates the sentence 'Ia berlari pagi saat orang-orang masih tertidur lelap.' (He was running in the morning while people was still sleeping) into 'He ran early while the people were still slept soundly.' by literal translation technique.The one should be emphasized by an explanation was 'tertidur' that was being got asleep by something or someone translated as 'sleep' passively which was 'slept' & 'were' to adjust the source text grammar into target text grammar, so the translation became 'the people still slept'.It still belonged to literal translation because the source text was directly translated word by word.This translation was in one way with the explanation of literal translation by Molina and Albir (2002).
The grammatical use of both phrases in the simple past tense and the simple past tense in the passive form were considered that the translator must use 'when' since both the 2 clauses are in the simple past form & the function of the 'while" as the time reference.The sentence should be "He ran early when the people were still asleep soundly."

Modulation
Modulation is a technique that is the change a point of view, focus or cognitive category of the translator; it can be lexical or structural (Molina and Albir, 2002).The researchers finds out there are 679 times or about 22.54% of modulation in analyzing the translation technique.The following data are some examples of modulation.
Capitalization is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 19.18% in the modulation technique.And meaning not clear, word order, and spelling is the least frequent error made by the students with a percentage of 2.74%%.
The change of focus, the point of view, & cognitive categorization in modulation technique was found in some samples below: For the first mention by the researcher, I would like to mention is the modulation which is the change of focus.The students from the translation class change the source text main focus into the other focus on the target text such as below: ( In sample 7, the phrase 'berjalan menuju ke arahnya' ('walked into her') is translated into 'approached him close and close' and in sample 8,the phrase 'jadi kamu yang meleparku'(Ooh, so you throw me, don't you? said Granny Ranta.) is translated into 'the one who threw the pebble at me'.Although the meaning of the translation will be affected with shifting a little bit in a different way, the manner of both phrase use is still enough appropriate with the target language.Therefore, the translator changed the focus of the source text becomes 'approached him close and close'.This translation is in accordance with the definition of modulation by Molina and Albir (2002) that changes the focus in translation.

Reduction
The next technique used is reduction, which occurs 13 times.In this translation technique, the information item in the TL is compressed by the translator (Molina and Albir, 2002).The translator omits word(s) or phrase because probably he thinks it is not important.The researcher finds out there are 328 times or about 10.89% of reduction in analyzing the translation technique.
Word choice is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 25% in the reduction technique.An example of the reduction technique data presented below: (4.) Student numbers 1, datum number 39 ST : Bayangan itu berjalan menuju ke arahnya!TT : The shadow walked to him.Reconstruction : The shadow walked into him!
In the sample above, the word 'menuju'('aim') is not translated into the target language.The translator omitted the word because the meaning is still conveyed in the target language.
The translation above does have some grammatical error.It can found in the particle of phrase 'walked to'.The students might think that s/he is possible to use the particle 'to' in the 'The shadow walked to him.' Then, some grammatical errors were founded.They are punctuation and word choice.The particle of 'walked' should be 'into' and the punctuation of the end sentence should be '!' as the emphasizing of the source text message story.

Established Equivalent
According to Molina and Albir (2002), in established equivalent translator uses a familiar term or expression (according to dictionaries or language in daily use) as an equivalent in the TL.The researcher finds out there are 254 times or about 8.43% of established equivalent in analyzing the translation technique.Here are several established equivalent used.
Word form, word choice, & verb tense are the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English Department with the percentage 13.79% in the established equivalent technique.Spelling and word order are the least frequent error made by the students with the percentage 3.45%.An example of the established equivalent technique data can be shown below: (5.) Student number 6, datum number 35 ST : Tapi seorang diri di kebun yang gelap begini, siapa tahaan?TT : But if he had to be alone in the dark garden, who braved?Reconstruction : But if he was alone in the dark garden, who braved?
The student of the translation sample above chose to translate the phrase 'siapa tahan'(who can stand it?)into 'who braved' by establishing the equivalent.The student might thought that the 'who braved' was common used as the target language meaning transfer, so the reader could understand s/he translation.
Then, It might be reconstructed as the right grammatical translation in the correct grammatical form.The reconstruction is 'But if he was alone in the dark garden, who braved?'

Borrowing
According to Molina and Albir (2002), borrowing is to take a word or expression directly from SL text.The borrowing can be pure or naturalized.If the translator uses pure borrowing, he takes the word exactly the same without any changes.The naturalized borrowing is adjusted the phonetic and morphology in TL.The researcher finds out there are 201 times or about 6.67% of borrowing in analyzing the translation technique.The following data are the examples of borrowing found.
Capitalization is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 40.48% in the borrowing technique.And spelling is the least frequent error made by the students with the percentage 2.38%.
In the analyzing the borrowing technique in students' translation, I found that some students translated some source text by directly translated it without changing the spelling of the word.Then, the word that was translated by some students by borrowing is just 'serabi'.They translate the word without change into another word or modify the word's morpheme.Then, a sample of data contained borrowing technique is below: (6.) Student number 15, datum number 60 ST : Setiap pagi Nenek Ranta berjualan kue serabi di pertigaan jalan kampung.TT : Every morning grandmother is selling "kue serabi" at a intersection in the village road.Reconstruction : Every morning grandmother was selling "kue serabi" at the intersection in the village road.
There are some grammatical errors in the sentence 'Every morning grandmother is selling "kue serabi" at a intersection in the village road.'.They are verb tense and article.Like the other students, this student translates the sour text into the target text in inappropriate tenses form.S/he might think that every tense in the narrative text can be present tense and the use of determiner and article is the same.
Then, The sentence should be reconstructed to be 'Every morning grandmother was selling "kue serabi" at the intersection in the village road.' .The reason is as the narrative text as the target text, the context of the text should be using past tense, and for the determiner of the explained object should use determiner.

Linguistic Amplification
According to Molina and Albir (2002), linguistic amplification is adding linguistic elements in the TL.This technique is often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing.The researcher finds out there are 170 times or about 5.64% of linguistic amplification in analyzing the translation technique.
Here are some examples of this technique found in this short story.
Verb tense is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 20.83% in the linguistic amplification technique.And singular plural, article, and meaning not clear are the least frequent error made by the students with the percentage 4.17%.An example of the linguistic technique data can be shown as below: The student translated the phrase 'Berarti sudah pagi.'('MeansIt was already morning') was translated into 'It meant morning was coming.'.The translation can be seen that the student was trying to give clarification from the source text by giving 'coming'.The student added some linguistic element to clarify the meaning from the sour text into the target text.The student tried to make the target text clear and understandable for the target text reader.
S/he can add a clause conjunction and determiner in the target text as 'It meant that the morning was coming.'.The reason is the use of the conjunction and the determiner can make the target text to be making sense.The function of determiner in this reconstruction is to refer a thing in general or to explain someone mean and 'that' as apart to introduce part of sentence.

Amplification
According to Molina and Albir (2002), amplification is a technique that adds the detail information that does not exist in the SL text such as explicative paraphrasing.Amplification is the opposite of reduction.The researcher finds out there are 129 times or about 4.28% of amplification in analyzing the translation technique.The following data are some examples of amplification.
Word form is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 35.29% in the amplification technique.Incomplete sentence is the least frequent error made by the students with the percentage 3.33%.An example of the amplification technique data can be shown as below: (8.) Student number 4, datum number 25 ST : Rasa heran Piyun muncul lagi.
TT : Piyu's sense of wonder come up some more again.Reconstruction : Piyun's sense of wonder came up some more again.
The student of this sample translated the source text 'Rasa heran Piyun muncul lagi.' (It was a wonder Piyun appeared again.)into 'Piyu's sense of wonder come up some more.'It was seemed using amplification techniques because the student translate the phrase 'muncul lagi' into 'come up some more again'.S/he did paraphrase to clarify the meaning.
Then, the grammatical error should be solved to be 'Piyun's sense of wonder came up some more again.'.The changes are in the verb tense of the target text and the spelling of the character name.

Adaptation
Adaptation is to replace the cultural element in SL text with another acceptable and familiar term in TL (Molina and Albir, 2002).The researcher finds out there are 114 times or about 3.78% of adaptation in analyzing the translation technique.The following are several example used of adaptation in the students' translation.
Word form is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 20.83% in the adaptation technique.An example of the adaptation data can be shown as below: The translation above seems having one grammatical error in the onomatopoeia word.It is punctuation error which is losing hyphens.Generally, hyphens are used to connect two words or parts of a word while avoiding confusion or ambiguity.Opening the dictionary is important to make sure whether a hyphen is needed in compound words.

Linguistic Compression
According to Molina and Albir (2002), in linguistic compression the translator compresses linguistic elements in the TT.This is often used in simultaneous interpreting and in sub-titling when using this technique.The researcher finds out there are 81 times or about 2.69% of linguistic compression in analyzing the translation technique.The following data are some examples of linguistic compression.
Capitalization is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 35.90% in the linguistic compression technique.An example of the linguistic compression data can be seen as below: (10.) Student number 5, datum number 21 ST : Tapi sekarang tak seorang pun yang terlihat," kata Piyun dalam hati.TT : but now, no one does," Said Piyun silently.Reconstruction : But now, no one does."Said Piyun silently.
The context of the text can be understood with the previous sentence.Then, The student translate the phrase 'tak seorangpun terlihat' (no one is seen, into 'no one does'.S/he tried to reduce some words into the simpler one.The student was synthesizing existing linguistic elements to be simpler because it can be understood.It was belonged to linguistic compression technique according to the definition of amplification by Molina and Albir (2002).
Then, It can be reconstructed to be 'But now, no one does."Said Piyun silently.'.It has been fixed by adding the capital letter and full stop punctuation.

Transposition
Based on Molina and Albir's Translation Technique, the grammatical category in the SL is changed into another form of grammar in the TL.The researcher finds out there are 70 times or about 2.32% of transposition in analyzing the translation technique.The following data are some examples of transposition.
Capitalization is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 35.90% in the transposition technique.An example of the transposition techniques can be seen as below: (11.) Student number 3 initially GAT, datum number 20 ST : "Aneh, biasanya setiap hari Minggu banyak orang lari pagi.TT : "It's weird; usually there are lots of people do the morning every Sunday Reconstruction : "It's weird, usually there are lots of people do the morning run every Sunday The translation above changed the function of word 'minggu' ('Sunday') from initially as the noun into adverb of time.There is a change.This change is in line with the definition of transposition by Molina and Albir (2002) that is a change of grammatical category.
For overcoming those grammatical errors, the target text might be reconstructed to be "It's weird, usually there are lots of people do the morning run every Sunday'.The correction is on the word 'run every Sunday' and addition of some punctuation, then they makes the meaning clear.

Compensation
It is to introduce ST (Source Text) element of information or stylistic effect in another place in the TT (Target Text) because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the ST (Source Text).There are 42 data found or about 1.39% using compensation technique.The following data are some examples of amplification.
Capitalization is the most frequent errors made by the students fifth semester of English department with the percentage 30.00% in the compensation technique.An example of the compensation techniques can be seen as below: (12.) Student number 1 initially HH , datum number 73 ST : "Iya.Kamu bukan lari pagi, tapi lari kepagian!TT : "Yes, you didn't run in the morning, but you run while a lot of people still asleep tightly!Reconstruction : "Yes, you didn't run in the morning, but you run while a lot of people still were asleep tight!
The phrase 'lari kepagian'(running too early morning) is translated into 'but you run while a lot of people still asleep tightly!'.The translation changed the stylistic effect by attaching information elements or other stylistic effects to the target text because it is not placed in the same position as the source text.The translation is still good enough to understand In order to correct the grammatical errors that are occurred, the target text is reconstructed to be "Yes, you didn't run in the morning, but you run while a lot of people still were asleep tight!' It has been fixed the verb tense error and word form error.

Particularization/Generalization
Particularization is used when the translator transferences the term in TL that is using more specific, suitable, concrete or special (Molina and Albir, 2002).This technique is the opposite of generalization.Generalization is defined as using a more general/common or neutral term in the target language.The researcher finds out there are 39 times or about 1.29% of particularization/generalization Technique in analyzing the translation technique.The following data are some examples of particularization/generalization Technique.
Spelling and punctuation are the least frequent error made by the students with the percentage 8.33%.One of the examples of the particularization/ generalization techniques can be seen as below: (13.) Student numbers 2 initially P , datum number 32 ST : Bulu tengkuknya berdiri .(Hisnape hair stood.)TT : His hair stand end on.Reconstruction : His hair stood on end.
The sentence above is translated using generalization technique when it was transferred into TT.The translator translates the phrase 'Bulu tengkuknya'(his nape hair) into 'his hair' by generalization technique.Moreover, translator may translate it into other words but s/he still want to make the proper translation which more easy to understand in the target language.This Translation is one way with Molina and Albir's generalization technique.
The grammatical use of the sample sentence was considered that the translator must use 'stood' in order to make the sentence in the past tense which more appropriate.And also the position of 'end' or the word order should be 'stood on end'.The sentence should be "His hair stood on end." The relation between translation techniques and grammatical errors needs to be spread out their counts.Then counting table below will clearly show how the errors occurred in the translation techniques occurred in the students translation.

Discussion
The most used technique is literal Translation occurred 905 times and represented 30.05%.The lowest used translation techniques are particularization & generalization occurred 39 times and represented 1.29%.Therefore, those percentages would be 100% in total.Comparing this finding with the other researcher, Lestiyawati (2014), the findings indicate that, after analyzing and interpreting 225 sentences, literal translation is dominantly used as a technique in translating the source text with the highest used technique in which 149 of 225 sentences applied the technique.The result is same with this research found, which is the most used translation technique is literal translation.
In order to find the relation with the other research, the educational translation product research, A'yun (2013) conducted a research about translation techniques that used in academic product, the result were 113 complex sentences found in chapter five and six of the bilingual textbook BIOLOGY 1 for Senior High School Year X Published by Yudhistira.There were only nine translation techniques; they were literal translation, borrowing, adaptation, reduction, particularization, amplification, generalization, transposition, and description.It can be concluded that literal translation dominated the translation techniques used by the translator.The researcher found is same with this research found which is the most frequent of using techniques is literal translation.
Based on the calculation above, it can be explained that the total errors of capitalization was the most frequent errors was made by the students' fifth semester of English Department with the percentage 18.18%, and incomplete sentence and run-on sentence were the least frequent error were made by the students with the percentage 2.10% and 1.17%.The result of the analysis showed is almost same with the research result conducted by Koman (2019).The result of his research showed that there were 21 translation errors of 26 error categories according to ATA's Framework for Standardized Error Making.In conclusion, the three most prominent error categories made by the students were grammar, syntax, and faithfulness error.In addition, grammatical error was also an errors that almost made by students.This finding is different with the other research whereas grammatical errors in translation are also can be found in not only the students' product but also in the translation machine.The research conducted by Adam (2016) also showed that statistical method of Google Translate, the inability of Google Translate to understand the contexts of the texts beyond sentence, and errors in the source texts that carried into translation errors in the target texts were the causes of translation errors found in the data.
From the finding, we could find out that the most used translation technique that have a lot of errors was literal translation technique in the first place and then followed by modulation technique in the second place.Furthermore, this finding is not be found the comparison and relation with the previous studies because there is no previous research discuss this kind of research which means this is the new research.

CONCLUSION
The types of translation techniques and the types of grammatical errors were made by the students in translating Indonesian text into English were classified as follows: The most used type translation technique was literal translation (30%) and modulation technique (22.6%).The most frequent error made by the students in translating Indonesian text into English text is errors in capitalization

( 7 .
) Student number 12, datum number 5 ST : Berarti sudah pagi.TT : It meant morning was coming.Reconstruction : It meant that the morning was coming.
chicken sound 'Kukuruyuuuuuuk…..!!' in Indonesian version translated into English version 'Cock a doodle doo……!!!' It was belonged to adaptation technique according to the definition of amplification by Molina and Albir (2002).

Table 1 .
Translation techniques used

Table 2 .
Grammatical errors occurred

re the one who threw the pebble at me, aren
Tabel 3. The relation between error and translation techniquesIt can be seen from the table above that the most translation techniques occurred grammatical errors is modulation technique (17%).The table also shows that he lowest translation technique occurred grammatical error is particularization/generalization technique (2.8%).