The Realization of Conversational Implicatures in Listening Comprehension of ‘Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test’

implicatures. ______________ Abstract _______________________________________________________ Studying implicatures cannot be separated from studying pragmatics. Studying pragmatics is studying meaning in context. Understanding meaning in context is very essential in communication. The purpose of the study was to explain the realization of idiosyncratic and formulaic conversational implicatures in listening comprehension section of ‘LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test’. Qualitative research is used to collect data, analyze the data, and take a conclusion based on the analysis of the findings. The type of qualitative study used is content analysis. In a TOEFL book titled LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test, data were implicatures in every conversation covered in the script of the short conversation of listening comprehension section. The researcher found that the four types of idiosyncratic implicature were all in the short conversations of listening comprehension section in the TOEFL book "LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test.” Meanwhile, formulaic implicature that could be found were idiomatic, scalar, sequential, and indirect criticism implicature. However


INTRODUCTION
Almost at every university in Indonesia, students who will graduate are obligated to pass English proficiency tests to measure their ability in mastering English. Hughes (2003) pointed out that proficiency tests are used to measure people's ability in a language although they have been trained in that language. Besides, some universities in overseas obligate students who intend to register in such universities to pass English proficiency tests such as IELTS and TOEFL as one of the requirements. Besides, students who want to get scholarships sometimes should attach IELTS or TOEFL with a certain passing grade as one of the requirements.
Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL test is one of the well-known TOEFL course books, which is written by Deborah Phillips. This book is intended to prepare students for the TOEFL test in paper format. TOEFL paper-based test contains listening comprehension, structure, and written expression, and reading comprehension. This book is completed with diagnostic pre-test, TOEFL post-test, exercises in a non-TOEFL and TOEFL format. Skills and strategies are also provided in this book with clearly defined steps to improve students' performance on the test. The complete tests which are provided in paper format allow the students to stimulate the experience of taking actual TOEFL tests with all of the sections together in one complete test.
The listening section in TOEFL paperbased test is divided into three parts. Those parts consist of short conversation in part A, longer conversation in part B, and several talks in part C. Listening short conversation in part A consists of 30 questions. Each question contains short conversation between two people. After each conversation, a question about the conversation will be heard. All of the questions must be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied by the speakers.
What is stated is related to explicature. It can be said explicature when people utter something, they sometimes say it clearly; truthfully, just the right amount of information, and directly address the goal. For example, when a child asks his mother about the place of the meal, where is the meal? The mother answers, it's on the table in the kitchen. The mother has answered precisely what she meant, no more and no less, no distinction is made between what she says and what she means, and there is no additional level of meaning.
However, what is implied is related to implicature. It can be said implicature when what people say different from what they mean. Speaker often means more than what they actually say from their words. For example, when someone says, 'this class is very hot'. It can be, please turn on the air conditioner or may I open the window? or can you take something cold for me?. People also sometimes do not say directly what they mean from the words or even say the opposite. For instance, when asking someone for help but feeling hesitate to ask directly, the utterance might be, 'are you busy?' or 'if you are still doing something I'll do it by myself'.
Meanwhile, studying implicatures cannot be separated from studying pragmatics. Studying pragmatics is studying meaning in context. Understanding meaning in context is very essential in communication. By understanding meaning in context, misunderstanding can be avoided. Johan et al. (2022) stated that pragmatic competency is an aspect which is very crucial to consider when learning second language.
In addition, implicatures relate to conversational maxims. Conversational maxim is the basic theme in pragmatics. Maxims of conversation is the cornerstone of Grice's approach to linguistic pragmatics" (Spector, 2019). Conversational maxims are introduced by Grace to explain the mechanisms by which the people interpret conversational implicatures (Thomas, 2013).
According to Cruise (2006), the cooperative principle is the basis to explain how conversational implicature arises. It was suggested by Grice, in which he explained that conversation is a cooperative activity in which participants should agree to obey certain norms. In other words, Cooperative principles are the principles which should be followed by the speaker and the hearer in which they should be cooperative in order to make the communication effective.
A speaker intentionally generates an implicature, in which the hearer may or may not understand the meaning of what the speaker said. Grice introduces conversational maxims and the cooperative principle to explain how people interpret conversational implicature (Thomas, 2013). George & Mamidi (2020) stated polar questions where an indirect answer without an explicit 'Yes' or 'No' generates implicatures. Li (2015) found that the main feature of advertising language to produce implicatures is by flouting the maxims. Conversational implicature is derived from the general principle of conversation in which speakers will generally obey the maxims (Brown & Yule, 1983). The cooperative principles are: Make your contribution as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
However, Cutting (2002) stated that the cooperative principle has limitations. This limitation relates to a significant objection that one may have to Grice's model is that different cultures, countries, and communities have their ways of observing and expressing maxims for particular situations. Tsojon and Jonah (2016) revealed that the strength of the Cooperative Principle lies in the distinction between the Gricean Maxims.
Conversational maxims are the rules which should be obeyed by the participants in communication, in which they should give sufficient information, be honest, be relevant, and be concise in speaking.
There are four conversational maxims proposed by Grice (1991). Those are maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The four conversational maxims help to establish what that implicature might be. The four conversational maxims are formulated as follows: (1) Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).
(2) Quality: do not say what you believe to be false, do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Conversational maxims are necessary in the first place because communication would be very difficult and perhaps break down altogether (Mey, 2001). Levinson (1983) stated that speakers should converse maximally, efficiently, rationally, and cooperatively with these maxims.
In other words, they should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly, and give sufficient information.
Saying something different from the meaning can be said as implicatures. Bouton (1994) defined implicature as the process of making inferences about the meaning of an utterance in the context in which it occurs. Davis (2016) argued that implicature for speakers is "meaning one thing by saying something else." Horn (2006) stated that implicature is part of the speaker's meaning from the speaker's utterance in which what is meant is different from what is said. Semantic implicatures relate to sentence meaning, while conversational implicatures depend on the utterance context. Implicature denotes a type of meaning or implying. Many forms of conversational implicature exist frequently in everyday speech and literature.
According to Yule (2017, p.415), conversational implicatures can be identified by the cooperative principle and the maxims as guides.
Ariel (2008) concluded that conversational implicatures are often generated when the encoded meaning violates some Gricean maxim. Moreover, Griffiths (2006) stated that conversational implicatures are inferences that depend on the existence of norms for the use of language, such as the widespread agreement that communicators should aim to tell the truth. Brown and Yule (1983, p. 31) pointed out that conversational implicature is derived from a general principle of the conversation plus a number of maxims which speakers will generally obey. Aristyanti et al. (2020) found that maxim flouting is one of the effective ways to improve communication skills when it comes to teaching and learning English as a foreignlanguage.
The following is the data that the hearer relies on to make the conversational implicature work out, according to Grice (1991).
(1) The conversational meaning of the words used, together with the identity of any references that may be involved (2) The Cooperative Principle and its maxims (3) The context, linguistic or otherwise, of the utterance (4) Other items of background knowledge The fact (or supposed fact) that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants, and both participants know or assume this to be the case.
Birner (2013) pointed out that conversational implicatures have some features. They are: (1) Calculable It means that it must be possible to work out -to calculate -the implicature based on the utterance, the maxims, and the context of the utterance.
(2) Cancellable This is the most commonly used test for conversational implicature: If you cannot cancel it, it is not a conversational implicature. This feature is also called defeasibility. It means that conversational implicatures can be defeated in the right circumstances.
(3) Non-detachable It means that any way of phrasing the same proposition in the same context will result in the same implicature (except for Manner-based implicatures, of course); the implicature cannot be detached from the proposition. (4) Non conventional It means that the implicature is not consistently carried by the particular linguistic expression used (therefore, it can be cancelled). This is, in a sense, the flip side of its being nondetachable; together, non-conventionality and non-detachability follow from the fact that the implicature is calculated from the combination of the proposition, the context, and the maxims, rather than being attached to the expression. (5) "not carried by what is said, but only by the saying of what is said" The implicature is not carried by the semantics (if it were, it would be conventionally attached to the semantics regardless of the context), but instead by the speaker's decision to say what they've said and to say it in that context. (6) Indeterminate Any number of possible inferences could reasonably be drawn based on a particular utterance in a particular context. Bouton (1994) classified conversational implicature into two types; formulaic and idiosyncratic implicature. Pratama et al. (2017) has explained that Bouton (1994) classified formulaic implicature into Pope-Q, Minimum Requirement Rule (MRR), sequential, indirect criticism, and scalar impicature. For idiomatic implicature, Pratama concluded from Arsenault's (2014) that idiomatic expression can be a template for implicatures. Meanwhile, there was no further classification for idiosyncratic implicature from Bouton. Therefore, Pratama assumed that idiosyncratic implicature was the four types of implicature mentioned by Grice (1975). Formulaic implicatures are implicatures that have specific semantic and pragmatic patterns.
Idiosyncratic implicatures are implicatures which are very dependent on the utterance context. Wang (2011) conducted a study on the relation between Grice's conversational implicature theory and English listening comprehension. He found that Grice's conversational implicature theory influences listening comprehension deeply, especially in understanding conversations. Buckhoff (1997) conducted a study on the explicit teaching of implicature to ESL students and its effect on their performance on the listening section of the TOEFL. The result of his study suggests that implicature instruction seems to have had the most effect on part A of the TOEFL that is listening shortconversation. Arifuddin (2014) conducted research on inferring implicature or pragmatic meaning from TOEFL-like relies on gender. He found that male test-taker dominate gender-specific causes of failure.
This study aims to explain the realization of idiosyncratic and formulaic conversational implicatures in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.
Finally, it is expected that the result of this research can provide scientific information about formulaic and idiosyncratic conversational implicature theory and practically improve students' awareness of formulaic and idiosyncratic implicature. It is also expected that it can help the students to do the listening comprehension section in every TOEFL test. Then, the results of this research can pedagogically be used to understand English better in its actual use and help learners better understand formulaic and idiosyncratic implicature.

METHOD
This study employs qualitative descriptive research in which the research design applied is content analysis. In this research, the data were derived from the scripts of the listening comprehension sections found in 'Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test' by Deborah Philips.The data were selected based on the type of data. In this research, the items containing idiosyncratic and formulaic conversational implicaturesproposed by Pratama et al. (2017) were selected. If the data reduction results were appropriate, they would be presented on the data display. If the data were still inappropriate, they woud be carried out into the data verification. The data verification would be collected back again for further reduction.The results of data reduction were presented in the form of tabulation and description. These data were then analyzed, evaluated, and interpreted. After the data were interpreted, then taking a conclusion. If the data were inappropriate, they would be re-verified. After re-verifying the data, they would be collected and reduced, displayed, and the last concluded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There are two points that will be explained based on the research questions. The first is about the realization of idiosyncratic conversational implicatures in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. The second is the realization of formulaic conversational implicatures in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.

The
Realization of Idiosyncratic Conversational Implicature in Listening Comprehension Section The types of idiosyncratic implicature were found in short conversation of listening section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. The result is presented in table 1. After identifying the conversations in short conversations of listening comprehension section, it was found that the four types of idiosyncratic implicature are realized in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. They are quantity, quality, relevance, and manner implicature.
The concept of conversational implicature was introduced by Grice (1975) to show how meaning expressed by the speaker (speaker meaning), not directly encoded in the words, can be inferred (recognized) by the hearer. Based on the observation conducted by Grice, conversational exchanges consist of cooperative efforts recognized by each participant. As a result, he proposed the Cooperative Principle which run as follows: ʻMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engagedʼ (1975: 45). Then, Grice proposed four conversational maxims governing the rules of conversation: (1) quantity: do not make your contribution more informative than is required; (2) quality: do not say what you believe to be false or that for which you lack evidence; (3) relation: be relevant; and, (4) manner: be brief and orderly.
Following Pratama et al. (2017), he proposed that conversational implicature consists of two types; idiosyncratic and formulaic implicature. Idiosyncratic implicature was divided into four types; quality, quantity, manner, and relevance implicature. Quality implicature can be remarked when it manipulates maxim of quality. Quantity implicature can be remarked when it manipulates maxim of quantity. Manner implicature can be remarked when it manipulates maxim of manner. Relevance implicature can be remarked when it manipulates maxim of relation.
From the analysis, it was revealed that the four types of idiosyncratic implicature were realized in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. These implicature are quantity, quality, manner, and relevance implicature.

Quantity Implicature
From the finding, all of the quantity implicatures were found since the utterance in each conversation was more informative than required. It was never found because of less informative than it is required. For example: (Context) I'd like to order a dozen roses. Do you deliver? (Utterance) Yes. We can deliver anywhere in the city by this afternoon. Based on the context, the woman does not need the information about where the man can deliver the roses. She only asked whether the man can deliver the dozen roses that the woman ordered. Therefore, the man's statement is more informative than required. It can be inferred that it manipulates maxim of quantity. Thus, this can be categorized as quantity implicature.

Quality Implicature
It was analyzed that quality implicatures found in short conversation of listening comprehension section of Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test were realized since the participant in each utterance of the conversation cannot say for certain, and speaks only on the basis of the evidence s/he has, in which it manipulates maxim of quality.
Based on the finding, there are some reasons which cause the uncertainty expression.
The words 'suppose', 'think' (including 'thought'), the utterance 'as far as I know', and the use of question tag. These uncertainty expressions cause the participants speak only on the basis of the evidence they have.

Manner Implicature
The analysis of manner implicature from the finding shows that beside the usual utterances which cause manner implicature, there are some expressions found in the utterance of the conversations which cause manner implicature. They are: 1. The utterance as the answer of yes no question which actually can be answered concisely by 'yes' or 'no' but it is not directly answered the question. For example: (Context) Is Bob doing a good job in the office? (Utterance) He never manages to turn in his budget reports on time. Based on the context, the utterance is not an answer to the question. The context is in the form of a question, but the answer doesn't say Yes or No. However, it can be interpreted that the answer is No. Since it is not directly answered the question. Therefore, it can be inferred that it manipulates maxim of manner. 2. The utterance which contains two negative ideas which appear in one sentence. This kind of utterance actually is implied positive sentence.
(Context) How's Walter doing in his new bussiness?
The utterance contains two negative ideas appear in one sentence. The implied meaning of this utterance is thatWalter has exactly been successful. Since the statement is prolixity, it manipulates the maxim of manner.
The use of the word 'wish' in a sentence; a negative wish which implies an affirmative reality, or a positive wish which implies a negative reality.
(Context) Were the bills paid on time this month? (Utterance) I wish they had been. An affirmative wish implies a negative reality. The utterance contains an affirmative wish; it implies that the bills were not paid on time this month. Beside, based on the context, the utterance is not an answer to the question. The context is in the form of a question, but the utterance doesn't say Yes or No. However, the answer in the utterance can be interpreted that the answer is No. Based on the context, It just needs an answer Yes or No. The utterance of this conversation is not directly answered the question. Therefore, it can be inferred that this utterance manipulates manner maxim.
3. The utterance containing a sentence with a negative and a comparative. This kind of utterance implies that it has a superlative or very strong meaning.
(Context) Did you enjoy the sightsseeing trip that you took last week? (Utterance) It couldn't have been more perfect in anyway. The utterance contains a sentence with a negative and a comparative. It means that it has a superlative or very strong meaning. 'It couldn't have been more perfect in anyway' means that 'it was very perfect'. Besides, based on the context, the utterance is not an answer to the question. The context is in the form of a question, but the utterance doesn't say Yes or No. However, the answer in the utterance can be interpreted that the answer is No. Based on the context, It just needs an answer Yes or No. The utterance of this conversation does not directly answer the question. Therefore, it can be inferred that this utterance manipulates manner maxim. 4. Agreement with positive statement; 'I'll say', 'you can say that again'. Agreement with negative statement; 'neither do I'.
(Context) That musical production was truly magnificent.
The utterance shows agreement with positive statement. Seeing the context, the utterance implies agrees with the man. Since what the man says is ambiguous, it manipulates maxim of manner.
5. Expression of emphatic surprise; be with emphasis, do/did with emphasis, modal with emphasis, have with emphasis (perfect tense) For example: (Context) I'll be saying at the beach with my family during spring break.

(Utterance)
So you did decide to take the trip after all.
The utterance means that the woman did not decide to take the trip. It shows the man's surprise that the woman decides to take the trip. When surprise is expressed, it implies that the speaker did not expect something to be true. Since the statement is not to the point, it manipulates maxim of manner.
6. The utterance which contains untrue condition; an affirmative condition implies a negative reality; a negative condition implies an affirmative reality.
For Example: (Context) Were you able to get a new computer?
(Utterance) If the computers hadn't gone on sale, then I just couldn't have afforded to buy one.
The utterance contains a negative condition in which it implies an affirmative reality. So, the utterance above implies 'the computers went on sale, so I could afford to buy one'. Besides, based on the context, the utterance is not an answer to the question. The context is in the form of a question, but the utterance doesn't say Yes or No. However, it can be interpreted that the answer is yes. Based on the context, It just needs an answer Yes or No. The utterance of this conversation does not directly answer the question. Therefore, it can be inferred that this utterance manipulates manner maxim.

Relevance Impicature
Based on the finding, most of relevance implicature found in short conversation of listening comprehension section of Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test, were generated irrelevantly to the context. For example: Did Betty listen to what her boss said?
(Utterance) She followed the directions to the letter.
The utterance implies that the directions were in the form of letter, not directly from what her boss said. Based on the context, the utterance is irrelevant to what is in the context. Therefore, it manipulates relation of maxim.

The Realization of Formulaic Conversational Implicature in Listening Comprehension Section
The types of formulaic implicature were found in short conversation of listening section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFLTest'. The result is presented in table 2. After identifying the conversations in short conversations of listening comprehension section, it was found that four types of formulaic implicature are realized. They are idiomatic, scalar, sequential, and indirect criticism implicature. Meanwhile, the other formulaic implicature such as pope-Q and MRR (Minimum Requirement Rule) were not found in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.

The realization of Pope-Q implicature
Pope-q implicature was not found in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.

The realization of MRR implicature
Minimum Requirement Rule (MRR) implicature was not found in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.

The realization of indirect criticism implicature
Indirect criticism implicature is realized in the short conversations of listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. This short conversation was found only in complete test 4.
(Context) What do you think of this accounting report? (Utterance) It doesn't seem to have been done very carefully.
The statement of the man implies criticizing without being too explicit. Therefore, it includes of indirect criticism implicature.

The realization of sequential implicature
Sequential implicature is realized in the short conversations of listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. This short conversation exists only in complete test 5. (Context) We've been invited to go sailing this weekend. Would you like to go?
(Utterance) Sailing? I seldom have time to go sailing, and I really love it. Let's go.
Based on the context, the utterance of the woman shows the sequence of the events. Therefore, it includes of sequential implicature.

The realization of scalar implicature
Scalar implicature is realized in the short conversations of listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. These short conversations exist in diagnostic pretest, posttest, complete test 1, complete test 2, complete test 4, and complete test 5. For example (Context) Your new secretary seems to be doing a great job.

(Utterance)
Rarely do new employees take such initiative. The woman's statement 'Rarely do new employees take such initiative' means that 'new employees almost never take such initiative'. It implies new employees ever take such initiative, maybe once awhile. The word 'rarely' shows modality, so it includes of scalar implicature.

The realization of idiomatic implicature
Idiomatic implicature is realized in the short conversations of listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. These short conversations exist in diagnostic pretest, posttest, complete test 1, complete test 2, complete test 3, complete test 4, and complete test 5.
For example (Context) Has management decided on a new policy for pay raises? (Utterance) It's still up in the air, I think; it'll be discussed again at the meeting next Friday. The words 'still up in the air 'in the statement of the man means that it has not been decided yet. These words includes of idiom. Therefore it can be concluded it is idiomatic implicature.
The second objective of this research is to explain the realization of formulaic conversational implicatures in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFLTest'. Related to this second research objective, it will be discussed the result found based on the second research objective.
Following Pratama et al. (2017), he proposed that conversational implicature consists of two types; idiosyncratic and formulaic implicature. Formulaic implicature was divided into six types. They are idiomatic, scalar, sequential, indirect criticism, pope-Q and MRR (Minimum Requirement Rule) implicature. Idiomatic implicature can be remarked when it uses idioms and/or idiomatic expressions. Scalar implicature can be remarked when it uses modality. Sequential implicature can be remarked when it indicates the order of events. Indirect criticism implicature can be remarked when it indicates criticism without being too explicit. Pope-Q implicature can be remarked when it uses a rhetoric question.MRR (Minimum Requirement Rule) implicature can be remarked when a number mentioned by the speaker implicitly means the minimum number.
From the analysis, it was revealed that four types of formulaic implicature were realized in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. They are idiomatic, scalar, sequential and indirect criticism implicature. Meanwhile, the other formulaic implicatures such as pope-Q and MRR (Minimum Requirement Rule) were not found in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.
The realization of conversational implicatures in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test' is relevant to the previous studies conducted by Wang (2011) and Buckhoff (1997). Wang (2011) found that Grice's conversational implicature theory influences listening comprehension deeply, especially in understanding conversations. Meanwhile, Buckhoff (1997) on his study suggests that implicature instruction seems to have had the most effect on part A of the TOEFL, that is listening shortconversation.

CONCLUSIONS
All of the types of idiosyncratic implicature were realized, but not all of the types of formulaic implicature were realized in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'.
Four types of idiosyncratic implicature realized are quantity, quality, relevance, and manner implicature. From the most to the least, manner implicature takes the first position that is realized in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. The second is quantity implicature. The next is quality implicature. And the last is relevance implicature. From the finding, all of the quantity implicatures were found since the utterance in each conversation was more informative than required. It was never found because of less informative than it is required. Quality implicatures were realized since the participant in each utterance of the conversation cannot say for certain, and speaks only on the basis of the evidence s/he has, in which it manipulates maxim of quality. Relevance implicature were generated irrelevantly to the context. Manner implicature from the finding shows that beside the usual utterances which cause manner implicature, there are some expressions found in the utterance of the conversations which cause manner implicature. They are the utterance as the answer of yes no question, the utterance which contains two negative ideas which appear in one sentence, he use of the word 'wish' in a sentence, the utterance containing a sentence with a negative and a comparative., agreement with positive statement, expression of emphatic surprise, and the utterance which contains untrue condition.
Four types of formulaic implicature were realized in listening comprehension section of 'LONGMAN Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test'. They are idiomatic, scalar, sequential and indirect criticism implicature. Meanwhile, the other formulaic implicatures such as pope-Q and MRR (Minimum Requirement Rule) were not found. From the most to the least, idiomatic implicature takes the first position that is realized. The second is scalar implicature. The next is sequential and indirect criticism implicature which have the same number in the last position.